Gladiator Gold Ring Movie Old Roman Fighter Ancient Games Retro Vintage Killer • £5.99 (2025)

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Seller: lasvegasormonaco ✉️ (4,738) 99.6%, Location: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 267181413045 Gladiator Gold Ring Movie Old Roman Fighter Ancient Games Retro Vintage Killer. In the background is the top of the Colosseum with a barely visible crowd standing in it. The screenplay, initially written by Franzoni, was inspired by the 1958 Daniel P. Mannix novel Those About to Die. Gladiator Mask Ring This is a Gold Plated Gladiator Mask Ring The ring is resizable so will fit most fingers The Dimensions are 30mm x 20mm x 30mm and it weights just over 7 grams The Gladiator Gold Mask Ring is a resizable piece inspired by the movie Gladiator, featuring a design reminiscent of ancient Roman and Greek war helmets. Crafted from stainless steel, this ring showcases a gold colour and is adorned with a striking mask motif. The ring is a bold and versatile accessory for fans of historical and cinematic themes. Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectable Keepsake Click Here to Check out my other Historical Items Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 3,000 Satisfied Customers I have over 10 years of Ebay Selling Experience - So Why Not Treat Yourself? I have got married recently and need to raise funds to meet the costs also we are planning to move into a house together I always combined postage on multiple items Instant Feedback Automatically Left Immediately after Receiving Payment All Items Sent out within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Overseas Bidders Please Note Surface Mail Delivery Times > Western Europe takes up to 2 weeks, Eastern Europe up to 5 weeks, North America up to 6 weeks, South America, Africa and Asia up to 8 weeks and Australasia up to 12 weeks Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! 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City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra Gladiator (2000 film) Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Gladiator A man standing at the center of the image is wearing armor and is holding a sword in his right hand. In the background is the top of the Colosseum with a barely visible crowd standing in it. The poster includes the film's title and credits. Theatrical release poster Directed by Ridley Scott Screenplay by David Franzoni John Logan William Nicholson Story by David Franzoni Produced by Douglas Wick David Franzoni Branko Lustig Starring Russell Crowe Joaquin Phoenix Connie Nielsen Oliver Reed Derek Jacobi Djimon Hounsou Richard Harris Cinematography John Mathieson Edited by Pietro Scalia Music by Hans Zimmer Lisa Gerrard Production companies DreamWorks Pictures[1] Universal Pictures Scott Free Productions Red Wagon Entertainment Distributed by DreamWorks Distribution LLC (United States, Canada and South Korea) Universal Pictures (International; through United International Pictures) Release dates May 1, 2000 (Los Angeles) May 5, 2000 (United States) May 12, 2000 (United Kingdom) Running time 155 minutes (theatrical version) 171 minutes (extended version) Countries United States[2] United Kingdom[2] Language English Budget $103 million[3] Box office $465.5 million[3] Gladiator is a 2000 historical epic film directed by Ridley Scott and written by David Franzoni, John Logan, and William Nicholson from a story by Franzoni. It stars Russell Crowe, Joaquin Phoenix, Connie Nielsen, Oliver Reed, Derek Jacobi, Djimon Hounsou, and Richard Harris.[a] Crowe portrays the Roman general Maximus Decimus Meridius, who is betrayed when Commodus, the ambitious son of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, murders his father and seizes the throne. Reduced to slavery, Maximus becomes a gladiator and rises through the ranks of the arena, determined to avenge the murders of his family and the emperor. The screenplay, initially written by Franzoni, was inspired by the 1958 Daniel P. Mannix novel Those About to Die. The script was acquired by DreamWorks Pictures, and Scott signed on to direct the film. Principal photography began in January 1999 and wrapped in May of that year. Production was complicated by the script being rewritten multiple times and by the death of Oliver Reed before production was finished. Gladiator had its world premiere in Los Angeles, California, on May 1, 2000. The film was released in the United States on May 5, 2000, by DreamWorks and internationally on May 12, 2000, by Universal Pictures. The film grossed $465.5 million worldwide, becoming the second-highest-grossing film of 2000, and won five Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Crowe. A sequel, Gladiator II, was released in November 2024. Plot In AD 180, the Roman general Maximus Decimus Meridius intends to return home after he leads the Roman army to victory against Germanic tribes near Vindobona. Emperor Marcus Aurelius tells Maximus that his own son, Commodus, is unfit to rule and that he wishes Maximus to succeed him, as regent, to restore the Roman Republic. Angered by this decision, Commodus secretly murders his father. Commodus proclaims himself the new emperor and requests loyalty from Maximus, who refuses. Maximus is arrested by Praetorian Guards led by Quintus, who tells him that he and his family will die. Maximus kills his captors and, wounded, rides for his home near Turgalium, where he finds his wife and son executed. Maximus buries them and collapses from his injuries. He is found by slave traders, who take him to Zuccabar in the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis and sell him to the gladiator trainer Proximo. Maximus reluctantly fights in local tournaments, his combat skills helping him win matches and gain popularity. He earns the nickname "the Spaniard" and befriends Juba, a gladiator from Carthage, and Hagen, a gladiator from Germania. In Rome, Commodus organizes 150 days of gladiatorial games to commemorate his father and win the approval of the Roman public. Upon hearing this, Proximo reveals to Maximus that he was once a gladiator who was freed by Marcus Aurelius, and advises him to "win the crowd" to gain his freedom. Proximo takes his gladiators to fight in Rome's Colosseum. Disguised in a masked helmet, Maximus debuts in the arena as a Carthaginian in a re-enactment of the Battle of Zama. Unexpectedly, he leads his side to victory and wins the crowd's support. Commodus and his young nephew, Lucius, enter the Colosseum to offer their congratulations. Seeing Lucius, Maximus refrains from attacking Commodus, who orders him to reveal his identity. Maximus removes his helmet and declares his intent to seek vengeance. Commodus is compelled by the crowd to let Maximus live. That evening, Maximus is visited by Lucilla, his former lover and Commodus's sister. Distrusting her, Maximus refuses her help. Commodus arranges a duel between Maximus and Tigris of Gaul, an undefeated gladiator. Several tigers are set upon Maximus, but he prevails. At the crowd's desire, Commodus orders Maximus to kill Tigris, but Maximus spares his life in defiance. In response, the crowd chants "Maximus the Merciful", angering Commodus. To provoke Maximus, Commodus taunts him about the murder of his family, but Maximus resists the urge to strike him. Increasingly paranoid, Commodus instructs his advisor, Falco, to have every senator followed, and refuses to have Maximus killed for fear he will become a martyr. Maximus discovers from Cicero, his ex-orderly, that his former legions remain loyal to him. He secretly meets with Lucilla and Gracchus, an influential senator. They agree to help Maximus escape Rome to join his legions in Ostia, oust Commodus by force, and hand power back to the Roman Senate. The Praetorians arrest Gracchus. Lucilla meets Maximus at night to arrange his escape; they share a kiss. Commodus becomes suspicious when Lucius innocently hints at the conspiracy. Commodus threatens Lucilla and Lucius, and has the Praetorians attack the gladiators' barracks. Proximo and his men sacrifice themselves to enable Maximus to escape, but Maximus is captured at the rendezvous with Cicero, where the latter is killed. Commodus demands that Lucilla provide him with an heir. He challenges Maximus to a duel in the Colosseum to win back public approval and stabs him before the match to gain an advantage. Despite his injury, Maximus disarms Commodus during the duel. After Quintus and the Praetorians refuse to help him, Commodus unsheathes a hidden knife; Maximus overpowers Commodus and drives the knife into his throat, killing him. Before Maximus succumbs to his wound, he asks for political reforms, the emancipation of his gladiator allies, and the reinstatement of Gracchus as a senator. As he dies, Maximus envisions reuniting with his wife and son in the afterlife. His friends and allies honor him as "a soldier of Rome" and carry his body out of the arena. That night, Juba visits the Colosseum and buries figurines of Maximus's wife and son at the spot where Maximus died. Cast Russell Crowe (left, pictured in 1999) and Joaquin Phoenix (pictured in 2000) Russell Crowe as Maximus Decimus Meridius: A Hispano-Roman general forced into slavery who seeks revenge against Emperor Commodus for the murder of his family and the previous emperor, Marcus Aurelius. Joaquin Phoenix as Commodus (based on the historical figure Commodus): The amoral and power-hungry son of Marcus Aurelius. He murders his father when he learns that Maximus will hold the emperor's powers in trust until a new republic can be formed. After gaining power, he seeks to weaken the power of the Senate and establish absolute rule. Connie Nielsen as Lucilla (based on the historical figure Lucilla): Maximus's former lover and the older child of Marcus Aurelius. Lucilla has been recently widowed. She resists her brother's incestuous advances while protecting her son, Lucius, from Commodus's corruption and wrath. Oliver Reed as Antonius Proximo: An old, gruff gladiator trainer who buys Maximus in North Africa. A former gladiator himself, he was freed by Marcus Aurelius and becomes a mentor to both Maximus and Juba. Derek Jacobi as Senator Gracchus: A member of the Roman Senate who opposes Commodus's rule. He is an ally of Lucilla and Maximus. Djimon Hounsou as Juba: A black Numidian gladiator who was taken from his home and family by slave traders. He becomes Maximus's closest friend. Richard Harris as Marcus Aurelius (based on the historical figure Marcus Aurelius): The elderly emperor of Rome who appoints Maximus to be his successor, with the ultimate aim of returning Rome to a republican form of government. He is murdered by his son Commodus before his wish can be fulfilled. Ralf Möller as Hagen: A Germanic warrior and Proximo's chief gladiator who befriends Maximus and Juba during their battles in Rome. Tommy Flanagan as Cicero: Maximus's loyal servant who provides liaison between the enslaved Maximus, his former legion based at Ostia, and Lucilla. He is used as bait for the escaping Maximus and is eventually killed by the Praetorian Guard. David Schofield as Senator Falco: A patrician senator opposed to Gracchus. He helps Commodus to consolidate his power. John Shrapnel as Senator Gaius: A Roman senator allied with Gracchus, Lucilla, and Maximus against Commodus. Tomas Arana as Quintus (loosely based on the historical figure Quintus Aemilius Laetus): A Roman military officer and commander of the Praetorian Guard who betrays Maximus by allying with Commodus. He later refuses to assist Commodus in his duel with Maximus. Spencer Treat Clark as Lucius Verus: The young son of Lucilla, nephew of Commodus and grandson of Marcus Aurelius. He was named after his apparent father Lucius Verus and idolizes Maximus for his victories in the arena. David Hemmings as Cassius: The master of ceremonies for the gladiatorial games in the Colosseum. Sven-Ole Thorsen as Tigris of Gaul. The only undefeated gladiator in Roman history, he was brought out of retirement by Commodus to kill Maximus. Omid Djalili as a slave trader. Giannina Facio as Maximus's wife. Giorgio Cantarini as Maximus's son, who is the same age as Lucilla's son, Lucius. John Quinn as Valerius, a Roman general in the army of Maximus. Production Development David Franzoni, who wrote the first draft of the Gladiator screenplay, traveled across Eastern Europe and the Middle East by motorcycle in 1972. "Everywhere I went in Europe, there were arenas", Franzoni recalled. "Even as I went east, going through Turkey, I began to think to myself this must have been a hell of a franchise." During a stop in Baghdad, Iraq, he started reading the 1958 Daniel P. Mannix novel Those About to Die,[b] which gave him the idea for Gladiator.[7] Twenty-five years later, Franzoni wrote the screenplay for Steven Spielberg's Amistad, which was Spielberg's first film for DreamWorks Pictures. Though Amistad was only a moderate commercial success, DreamWorks was impressed with Franzoni's screenplay and gave him a three-picture deal as writer and co-producer.[8] Remembering his 1972 trip, Franzoni pitched his gladiator story idea to Spielberg, who immediately told him to write the script.[7] After reading the ancient Roman text Historia Augusta, Franzoni chose to center the story on Commodus. The protagonist was Narcissus, a wrestler who, according to the ancient historians Herodian and Cassius Dio, strangled Commodus to death.[8] Several dead men and various scattered weapons are located in a large arena. Near the center of the image is a man wearing armor standing in the middle of an arena looking up at a large crowd. The man has his right foot on the throat of an injured man who is reaching towards the crowd. Members of the crowd are indicating a "thumbs down" gesture. The arena is adorned with marble, columns, flags, and statues. Pollice Verso by Jean-Léon Gérôme DreamWorks producers Walter F. Parkes and Douglas Wick felt that Ridley Scott would be the ideal director to bring Franzoni's story to life.[9] They showed him a copy of Jean-Léon Gérôme's 1872 painting Pollice Verso, which Scott said portrays the Roman Empire "in all its glory and wickedness".[10] He was so captivated by the image that he immediately agreed to direct the film. When Parkes pointed out that Scott did not know anything about the story, Scott replied, "I don’t care, I’ll do it".[11] Once Scott was on board, he and Franzoni discussed films that could influence Gladiator, such as One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, La Dolce Vita, and The Conformist.[7] However, Scott felt Franzoni's dialogue lacked subtlety, and he hired John Logan to rewrite the script. Logan rewrote much of the first act and made the decision to kill off Maximus's family to increase the character's desire for revenge.[12] In November 1998, DreamWorks reached a deal with Universal Pictures to help finance the film: DreamWorks would distribute the film in North America, while Universal Pictures would distribute it internationally.[13] Casting Before Russell Crowe was cast as Maximus, several other actors were considered for the role, including Antonio Banderas, Mel Gibson, and Tom Cruise.[7] However, producers had Crowe at the top of their list after his breakout performance in L.A. Confidential (1997).[7] Jude Law auditioned for Commodus, but Joaquin Phoenix was offered the part after sending in a "knockout" audition tape.[14][7] Jennifer Lopez reportedly auditioned for Lucilla, but the role went to Connie Nielsen.[15] Principal photography The film was shot at three main locations between January and May 1999.[16] The opening battle scene set in the forests of Germania was shot at Bourne Wood, near Farnham, Surrey, in England.[17] When Scott learned that the Forestry Commission was planning to remove a section of the forest, he obtained permission to burn it down for the scene.[18] The scenes of slavery, desert travel, and the gladiatorial training school were shot in Ouarzazate, Morocco. The scenes set in Rome were shot in Malta, where the crew built a replica of about one-third of the Colosseum to a height of 52 feet (16 meters). The other two-thirds and remaining height were added digitally.[19][20] The scenes of Maximus's farm were filmed in Val d'Orcia, Italy.[21] When filming battle scenes, Scott and cinematographer John Mathieson used multiple cameras filming at various frame rates and used a 45-degree shutter, which resulted in stylized visuals similar to those found in Saving Private Ryan.[22] For the fight sequence involving tigers, both real tigers and a dummy tiger were used. Some of the live animals were filmed on set with the actors, and some were filmed against a bluescreen and then digitally composited into the scene.[23][24] Crowe was injured multiple times during principal photography. Describing the impact filming had on his body, Crowe said, "I've still got a lot of little scar[s]". He added, "I've had Achilles tendons go out, knees go out, both shoulders, this shoulder's actually had an operation on it ... I've got a lower back thing that just won't go away, and that's from a couple, sort of, fall impacts during fight sequences".[15] Oliver Reed died of a heart attack on May 2, before all his scenes had been filmed. His character, Proximo, was meant to survive, but after Reed's death the script was revised to include his death at the hands of the Praetorian Guard. To make it appear that Reed had performed the entirety of Proximo's scenes, a body double was used, and Reed's face was digitally attached to the body of the double in post-production.[c] The film is dedicated to Reed. Script complaints and revisions Although Franzoni and Logan completed a second draft of the screenplay in October 1998, Crowe has claimed that the script was "substantially underdone" when filming began three months later. In an interview with Inside the Actors Studio, Crowe said the crew "started shooting with about 32 pages and went through them in the first couple of weeks."[27][28] The script was constantly changing throughout principal photography, with Scott soliciting input from writers, producers and actors.[11] Some dialogue was created on the spot, such as Commodus's line "Am I not merciful?", which was ad-libbed by Phoenix.[15] Crowe invented the phrase "Strength and Honor", which is a modified version of the Latin motto of his high school, "Veritate et Virtute", which translates as "Truth and Virtue".[28] Crowe also improvised part of the scene in which Maximus describes his home to Marcus Aurelius. Instead of recounting the details of a fictional place, Crowe actually described his own home in Australia.[29] At one point, William Nicholson was hired to rewrite the script to make Maximus a more sensitive character. He reworked Maximus's friendship with Juba and developed the afterlife plot thread. He said he "did not want to see a film about a man who wanted to kill somebody".[12] Crowe, however, was unhappy with some of Nicholson's dialogue. He allegedly called it "garbage", but is said to have claimed he is "the greatest actor in the world" and can "make even garbage sound good."[15] According to a DreamWorks executive, Crowe "tried to rewrite the entire script on the spot. You know the big line in the trailer, 'In this life or the next, I will have my vengeance'? At first he absolutely refused to say it."[30] Music Main article: Gladiator (2000 soundtrack) The musical score for Gladiator was composed by Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard, and conducted by Gavin Greenaway. The original soundtrack for the film was produced by Decca Records and released on April 25, 2000. Decca later released three follow-up albums: Gladiator: More Music From the Motion Picture (2001), Gladiator: Special Anniversary Edition (2005), and Gladiator: 20th Anniversary Edition (2020).[citation needed] "Now We Are Free" Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard Duration: 32 seconds.0:32 Listen to a clip from the Gladiator score Problems playing this file? See media help. In 2006, the Holst Foundation accused Hans Zimmer of copying the work of the late Gustav Holst in the Gladiator score. The organization sued Zimmer for copyright infringement and the case was settled out of court.[31] Release Initial theatrical release Gladiator had its world premiere in Los Angeles, California, on May 1, 2000. The film was released in the United States and Canada on May 5, 2000.[32] It earned $34.8 million during its opening weekend, making it the number one film of the weekend, and it remained number one in its second weekend, earning $24.6 million.[33][34] During its third weekend, Gladiator fell to second place with $19.7 million, behind Dinosaur ($38.9 million).[35] The film spent a total of ten weeks in the top ten at the box office, and was in theaters for over a year, finishing its theatrical run on May 10, 2001. Its total gross in the United States and Canada was $187.7 million.[36] Gladiator opened on May 12, 2000, in the United Kingdom, and grossed £3.5 million in its opening weekend. It spent seven weeks at number one, and its total gross surpassed $43 million.[d] The film was also number one for seven weeks in Italy, and for five weeks in France.[e] Outside of the United States and Canada, Gladiator grossed $272.9 million, for a total worldwide gross of $460.6 million against a budget of $103 million.[36] It was the second-highest-grossing film worldwide in 2000, behind Mission: Impossible 2 ($546.4 million).[43] Subsequent theatrical releases In 2020, Gladiator was re-released in Australia and the Netherlands to commemorate its 20th anniversary. This limited released grossed $4.8 million. The following year, it was re-released in the United Kingdom, earning a gross of $16,257.[36] Home media Gladiator was first released on DVD and VHS on November 21, 2000, and generated $60 million in sales within the first week.[44][45] In September 2009, the film was released by Paramount Home Entertainment on Blu-ray, and in May 2018 it was released on Ultra HD Blu-ray.[46] An extended version of the film, with 16 extra minutes of footage, is also available on all three formats.[47][48][49] Reception Critical response Gladiator was called "magnificent", "compelling", and "richly enjoyable" by some critics.[f] Crowe's performance in particular received praise. Writing for The Wall Street Journal, Joe Morgensten said that Crowe "doesn't use tricks in this role to court our approval. He earns it the old-fashioned way, by daring to be quiet, if not silent, and intensely, implacably strong."[53] Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Crowe brings an "essential physical and psychological reality to the role", while Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter said that Crowe uses "his burly frame and expressive face to give dimension to what might otherwise have been comic book heroics."[54][55] Variety called Crowe's performance "simply splendid".[51] Critics also praised Scott's directing and the visual style of the film. Manohla Dargis of LA Weekly commended Scott's state of the art filmmaking and expressed admiration for the film's "breathtaking, brutal lyricism".[56] Entertainment Weekly called the opening battle sequence "extraordinary", and described Scott as a "visual artist at his most deluxe."[57] Michael Wilmington of The Chicago Tribune called Gladiator "visually electrifying".[50] In addition to Crowe's acting and Scott's directing, reviewers also applauded John Mathieson's cinematography, Arthur Max's production design, and the musical score composed by Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard.[g] Although critics lauded many aspects of Gladiator, some derided the screenplay. Ian Nathan of Empire magazine called the dialogue "pompous", "overwritten", and "prone to plain silliness".[58] Roger Ebert said the script "employs depression as a substitute for personality, and believes that if characters are bitter and morose enough, we won't notice how dull they are."[59] Manohla Dargis called the story predictable and formulaic.[56] In his 2004 book The Assassination of Julius Caesar, the political scientist Michael Parenti described Gladiator as "unencumbered by any trace of artistic merit". He also criticized the film's depiction of Roman citizens, claiming that it portrays them as bloodthirsty savages.[60] Brandon Zachary of the entertainment website ScreenRant has claimed that the plot of Gladiator borrows heavily from the 1964 film The Fall of the Roman Empire, which is also about the transition from Marcus Aurelius to Commodus and the latter's downfall.[61] Audiences polled on Gladiator's opening day by the market research firm CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[62][better source needed] On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 80% of 257 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The website's consensus reads: "While not everyone will be entertained by Gladiator's glum revenge story, Russell Crowe thunderously wins the crowd with a star-making turn that provides Ridley Scott's opulent resurrection of Rome its bruised heart."[63] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 67 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[64] Accolades Main article: List of accolades received by Gladiator Gladiator won five awards at the 73rd Academy Awards, and was nominated for an additional seven. Wins Best Picture Best Actor (Russell Crowe) Best Visual Effects Best Sound Best Costume Design Additional nominations Best Director Best Original Screenplay Best Supporting Actor (Joaquin Phoenix) Best Original Score Best Cinematography Best Art Direction Best Film Editing[65] At the 58th Golden Globe Awards, Gladiator won two awards and was nominated for an additional three. Wins Best Motion Picture – Drama Best Original Score – Motion Picture Additional nominations Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama (Russell Crowe) Best Director Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture Drama (Joaquin Phoenix)[66] Gladiator also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film.[67] In 2021, Empire magazine ranked Gladiator 39th on its "100 Best Movies Of All Time" list, and declared it the 22nd best film of the 21st century.[68][69] The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes included the film on its list of "140 Essential 2000s Movies".[70] The character Maximus placed 95th on Empire's list of 100 Greatest Movie Characters.[71] Historical accuracy Gladiator is loosely based on real events that occurred within the Roman Empire in the latter half of the 2nd century AD. Scott intended to portray Roman culture more accurately than previous films, so he hired several historians as advisors. Nevertheless, multiple deviations from historical accuracy were made to increase interest, maintain narrative continuity, and for practical or safety reasons. Scott later stated that public perception of ancient Rome, due to the influence of previous films, made some historical facts "too unbelievable" to include. For instance, in an early version of the script, gladiators endorsed products in the arena; while this would have been historically accurate, there was concern that audiences would think it anachronistic.[72] At least one historical advisor resigned due to these changes. Another asked not to be mentioned in the credits. Allen Ward, a historian at the University of Connecticut, believed that a higher level of historical accuracy would not have made Gladiator less interesting or exciting. He asserted that filmmakers must be granted some artistic license when adapting historical events, but this license should not be employed to completely disregard facts.[73][74] Fictionalization Marcus Aurelius was not murdered by his son Commodus; he died at Vindobona (modern Vienna) in 180 AD from the Antonine Plague. The epidemic, believed to be either smallpox or measles, swept the Roman Empire during his reign.[75] There is no indication that Marcus Aurelius wished to return the Empire to a republican form of government, as depicted in the film. Moreover, he shared the rule of the Empire with Commodus for three years before his own death. Commodus then ruled alone until his death in 192 AD.[76] The film depicts Marcus seizing victory in the Marcomannic Wars. In reality, the war was ongoing when he died. Commodus secured peace with the two Germanic tribes allied against Rome, the Marcomanni and the Quadi, immediately after his father's death.[77] The character Maximus is fictional, although in some respects he resembles Spartacus, who led a slave revolt, and Marcus Nonius Macrinus, a general and friend of Marcus Aurelius.[78][79][80] Although Commodus engaged in show combat in the Colosseum, he was not killed in the arena; he was strangled in his bath by the wrestler Narcissus. Commodus reigned for over twelve years, unlike the shorter period portrayed in the film.[81] In the film, Lucilla is depicted as the widow of Lucius Verus. She has one son, also named Lucius Verus. In reality, Lucilla's son died long before the reign of Commodus, and she remarried Claudius Pompeianus soon after Verus's death. She had been married to Claudius for 11 years by the time her brother became Emperor, and her only living son during this time was Aurelius Pompeianus.[82] The real-life Lucilla was implicated in a plot to assassinate her brother in 182 AD, along with several others. She was first exiled to the island of Capri by Commodus, then executed on his orders later in the year.[83] In the film, Marcus banned gladiatorial games in Rome. The real Aurelius, however, banned games only in Antioch. No games were ever banned in Rome.[84] It is implied that the death of Commodus did result in peace for Rome and a return to the Roman Republic. In reality, it ushered in a chaotic and bloody power struggle that culminated in the Year of the Five Emperors in AD 193, as shown in the second film. According to the historian Herodian, the Roman people were overjoyed at the news of Commodus's death, although they feared that the Praetorians would not accept the new emperor Pertinax.[85] Anachronisms Although Gladiator takes place in the 2nd century AD, the Imperial Gallic armor and the helmets worn by the legionaries are from AD 75, a century earlier. The centurions, cavalry, standard bearers, and auxiliaries would have worn scale armor, known as lorica squamata.[86][87] The Praetorian Guards wear purple uniforms in the film, but this wardrobe is not corroborated by historical evidence. On campaign, they usually wore standard legionary equipment with some unique decorative elements.[88] Gladiator depicts Germanic tribes inaccurately wearing clothing from the Stone Age.[89] The film shows the Roman cavalry using stirrups. In reality, the cavalry used a two-horned saddle without stirrups. The stirrups were employed during filming because riding with a Roman saddle requires additional training and skill.[84] According to the classical scholar Martin Winkler, catapults and ballistae would not have been used in a forest, as they were reserved primarily for sieges and were rarely used in open battles. There is no documentation of the use of flaming arrows or flaming catapult canisters in ancient history.[84] Sequels Main article: Gladiator II A sequel to Gladiator, titled Gladiator II, was released in November 2024.[90] The film is directed by Ridley Scott and written by David Scarpa. It stars Paul Mescal, Denzel Washington, Joseph Quinn, Fred Hechinger, Pedro Pascal, Connie Nielsen, and Derek Jacobi, the last two reprising their roles from Gladiator. It is produced by Scott Free Productions for Paramount Pictures. In addition to directing the film, Scott serves as a producer alongside Michael Pruss, Douglas Wick and Lucy Fisher.[91] Costume designer Janty Yates and production designer Arthur Max—both of whom worked on Gladiator—returned for the sequel.[92] The story centers on Lucilla's son, Lucius, who is revealed to be the son of Maximus and not Lucius Verus as stated in Gladiator.[93] In Gladiator, Lucius is a young boy; in Gladiator II he is a grown man.[94] A third film is in the works.[95][96][97] See also Films set in ancient Rome Portal: Ancient Rome Notes Attributed to multiple references: [4][5][6] Subsequently titled The Way of the Gladiator Attributed to multiple references: [4][25][26] Attributed to multiple references: [37][38][39] Attributed to multiple references: [40][41][42] Attributed to multiple references: [50][51][52] Attributed to multiple references: [50][51][52][54][55][58] References Citations "Gladiator – Cast, Crew, Director and Awards". The New York Times. 2015. Archived from the original on October 7, 2015. Retrieved July 30, 2010. "Gladiator (2000)". British Film Institute. October 8, 2017. Archived from the original on February 20, 2018. Retrieved February 10, 2024. "Gladiator". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved February 10, 2024. "Gladiator". AFI Catalog. Retrieved February 23, 2024. "Gladiator". Britannica. March 14, 2024. Retrieved April 22, 2024. "Gladiator". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved April 22, 2024. Falk, Ben (May 5, 2020). "'Gladiator' at 20: Creator David Franzoni on the film's journey from 'Easy Rider' homage to Oscar hit (exclusive)". Yahoo. Retrieved February 11, 2024. Solomon, Jon (2004). "Gladiator from Screenplay to Screen". In Winkler, Martin M. (ed.). Gladiator: Film and History (PDF). Blackwell Publishing. Landau 2000, p. 22. Landau 2000, p. 26. Nichols, Mackenzie (May 4, 2020). "'Gladiator' at 20: Russell Crowe and Ridley Scott Look Back on the Groundbreaking Historical Epic". Variety. Retrieved February 24, 2024. Tales of the Scribes: Story Development (DVD). Universal. 2005. Hindes, Andrew (November 12, 1998). "U suits up for D'Works' 'Gladiator'". Variety. Retrieved February 11, 2024. Corliss, Richard (May 8, 2000). "Cinema: The Empire Strikes Back". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved February 24, 2024. Bricker, Tierney (April 7, 2021). "Are You Not Entertained By These 20 Secrets About Gladiator?". E! Online. Retrieved October 14, 2022. "'Gladiator' at 20: Russell Crowe describes surprising 'seat of the pants' filming of Oscar-winning epic". Yahoo Entertainment. May 5, 2020. Retrieved February 11, 2024. Landau 2000, p. 62. Landau 2000, p. 68. Landau 2000, p. 88. "KODAK: In Camera, July 2000 - Gory glory in the Colosseum". KODAK. Archived from the original on February 9, 2005. Retrieved February 10, 2024. Alex Kneenan (July 18, 2023). "Where Gladiator Was Filmed - Colosseum & Filming Locations Explained". ScreenRant. Bankston, Douglas (May 2000). "Gladiator: Death or Glory". American Cinematographer. Retrieved February 11, 2024. "The true story behind 'Gladiator's' prosthetic tiger". befores & afters. May 4, 2020. Retrieved February 17, 2024. "Russell Crowe Was Nearly Mauled By a Tiger While Filming 'Gladiator'". Esquire. May 5, 2020. Retrieved February 17, 2024. Patterson, John (March 27, 2015). "CGI Friday: a brief history of computer-generated actors". The Guardian. Retrieved February 11, 2024. White, Adam (May 5, 2020). "Ridley Scott says Oliver Reed 'dropped down dead' after challenging sailors to drinking match while filming Gladiator". The Independent. Retrieved May 19, 2024. Franzoni, David; Logan, John (October 22, 1998). "Gladiator: Second Draft". Internet Archive. Archived from the original on March 12, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2024. Inside the Actors Studio With Russell Crowe (transcript). kaspinet.com (Television production). January 4, 2004. Archived from the original on March 24, 2015. Retrieved February 24, 2024. Kemp, Sam (April 10, 2023). "10 behind-the-scenes stories from the set of 'Gladiator'". Far Out Magazine. Retrieved February 25, 2024. Corliss, Richard; Ressner, Jeffrey (May 8, 2000), "The Empire Strikes Back", Time, archived from the original on May 8, 2009, retrieved February 27, 2009 Kaptainis, Arthur (February 14, 2015). "Gladiator Live's music comes with a backstory". Montreal Gazette. Retrieved February 10, 2024. Natale, Richard (May 8, 2000). "'Gladiator' Has Roman Holiday at Box Office". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 22, 2024. "Weekend Box Office". Box Office Mojo. May 9, 2000. Archived from the original on October 3, 2022. Retrieved October 3, 2022. "'Gladiator' muscles out competition again at theaters". Brainerd Dispatch. May 17, 2000. Retrieved February 10, 2024. "Domestic 2000 Weekend 20". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved December 23, 2022. "Gladiator". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved February 10, 2024. "International box office: UK/Ireland". Screen International. May 19, 2000. p. 26. "International box office: UK/Ireland". Screen International. June 30, 2000. p. 22. Scott, Mary (July 21, 2000). "Gladiator roars past $200m internationally". Screen International. p. 39. "International box office: Italy". Screen International. July 14, 2000. p. 26. Senjanovic, Natasha (June 30, 2000). "Gladiator rules in Italy". Screen International. p. 23. Scott, Mary (August 4, 2000). "French opening boosts M:I2 worldwide gross". Screen International. p. 23. "2000 Worldwide Box Office". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved February 10, 2024. Hettrick, Scott (November 9, 2000). "'Gladiator' DVD to hit U.S., U.K." Variety. Retrieved April 8, 2023. "Gladiator, X-Men Set DVD Records". ABC News. November 28, 2000. Retrieved February 11, 2024. "Gladiator DVD Release Date". DVDs Release Dates. Retrieved February 10, 2024. "Gladiator (2000) DVD comparison". DVDCompare.net. Retrieved August 15, 2024. "Gladiator (2000) Blu-ray comparison". DVDCompare.net. Retrieved August 15, 2024. "Gladiator (2000) 4k Blu-ray comparison". DVDCompare.net. Retrieved August 15, 2024. "'GLAD' TIDINGS". Chicago Tribune. May 5, 2000. Retrieved September 5, 2022. McCarthy, Todd (April 24, 2000). "Gladiator". Variety. Retrieved February 5, 2024. Bradshaw, Peter (May 12, 2000). "No place like Rome". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved February 3, 2024. Morgenstern, Joe (May 6, 2000). "Crowe Sizzles as Rome Burns in Epic 'Gladiator'; An Empire Strikes Back". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved September 5, 2022. Turan, Kenneth (May 5, 2000). "Into the Arena". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 10, 2024. Honeycutt, Kirk (May 5, 2017). "'Gladiator': THR's 2000 Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 5, 2022. Dargis, Manohla (May 3, 2000). "Saving General Maximus". LA Weekly. Retrieved February 5, 2024. "Gladiator". EW.com. Retrieved January 28, 2024. Nathan, Ian (November 5, 2000). "Gladiator Review". Empire. Retrieved June 18, 2024. Ebert, Roger. "Gladiator movie review & film summary (2000) | Roger Ebert". www.rogerebert.com/. Retrieved September 5, 2022. Parenti, Michael (2004). The Assassination of Julius Caesar. The New Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 9781595585561. OL 8666786M. Zachary, Brandon (May 13, 2024). "Gladiator Is A Secret Remake Of This 60-Year-Old Historical Epic". ScreenRant. Retrieved September 30, 2024. "Home". Cinemascore. Retrieved February 5, 2024. "Gladiator". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango Media. Retrieved November 28, 2024. Edit this at Wikidata "Gladiator". Metacritic. Retrieved February 11, 2024. "Oscar: Crowe, Roberts named best actor, actress". Detroit Free Press. March 26, 2001. p. 6. Archived from the original on September 21, 2022. Retrieved September 21, 2022 – via Newspapers.com. Open access icon "Gladiator". Golden Globes. Retrieved February 24, 2024. "Gladiator wins BAFTA's Best Film". CNN. February 25, 2001. Retrieved February 24, 2024. "The 100 Best Movies Of All Time". Empire. Retrieved November 5, 2022. "The 100 Greatest Movies Of The 21st Century: 10 – 1". Empire. January 23, 2020. Retrieved November 5, 2022. "The 140 Essential 2000s Movies". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved February 11, 2024. "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters". Empire. August 10, 2020. Retrieved February 10, 2024. Griffin, Joshua (February 10, 2000). "Not Such a Wonderful Life: A Look at History in Gladiator". IGN. Retrieved July 10, 2024. Winkler 2004, p. 6. Ward, Allen (May 2001). "The Movie "Gladiator" in Historical Perspective". University of Connecticut. Archived from the original on May 13, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2010. Southern 2001, p. 18. Grant 1997, p. 95. Southern 2001, p. 22. Popham, Peter. "Found: Tomb of the general who inspired 'Gladiator'". The Independent. Archived from the original on March 3, 2009. "'Gladiator' tomb is found in Rome". BBC News. October 17, 2008. Archived from the original on March 22, 2009. Retrieved July 9, 2024. Boom, Carina (December 6, 2012). "Tomb of Roman general who inspired Gladiator reburied". PreHist. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. "Commodus". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on June 17, 2008. Retrieved June 17, 2008. Peacock, Phoebe B. (January 30, 2001). "Lucius Verus (161-169 A.D.)". Roman-Emperors.org. Archived from the original on March 28, 2018. Grant 1997, p. 96. Winkler 2004. Echols, Edward (July 29, 2020). "Herodian 2.2". Livius.org. Archived from the original on February 14, 2017. Retrieved February 13, 2017. DeVries, Kelly; Smith, Robert Douglas (2007). Medieval Weapons: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO. pp. 24–27. ISBN 978-1851095261. "Scale (Lorica Squamata)". Australian National University. Archived from the original on June 20, 2015. Retrieved June 20, 2015. Rankov, Boris (1994). The Praetorian Guard. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781855323612. Junkelmann, Marcus (December 31, 2004). Hollywoods Traum von Rom. Philipp von Zabern. pp. 117, 120, 195. ISBN 9783805329057. Huff, Lauren (April 11, 2024). "Everything we know about 'Gladiator II' so far". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved April 15, 2024. Kroll, Justin (January 6, 2023). "Paul Mescal To Star In Ridley Scott's 'Gladiator' Sequel For Paramount". Deadline. Retrieved February 12, 2024. Matt Villei (January 6, 2023). "Ridley Scott's 'Gladiator' Sequel Casts 'Normal People's Paul Mescal as Lead". Collider. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Huff, Lauren (September 23, 2024). "Gladiator II trailer reveals that Lucius is the son of Russell Crowe's Maximus after all". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved September 23, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (February 3, 2023). "'Gladiator 2′ Gets Pre-Thanksgiving 2024 Release". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved February 3, 2023. "Everything Ridley Scott Has Said About 'Gladiator III'". hollywoodreporter.com. hollywoodreporter.com. November 23, 2024. Retrieved November 25, 2024. "Godfather-style Gladiator 3 already in the works, hints Sir Ridley Scott". telegraph.co.uk. telegraph.co.uk. November 8, 2024. Retrieved November 25, 2024. "Ridley Scott says he's ready to make 'Gladiator III': 'Yes, it's true'". usatoday.com. usatoday.com. November 21, 2024. Retrieved November 25, 2024. Works cited Grant, Michael (1997). The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC-AD 476. United Kingdom: Phoenix Giant. ISBN 9781857999624. Landau, Diana, ed. (2000). Gladiator: The Making of the Ridley Scott Epic. New York, NY: Newmarket Press. ISBN 1-55704-428-7. Schwartz, Richard (2001). The Films of Ridley Scott. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-96976-2. Southern, Patricia (2001). The Roman Empire: From Severus to Constantine. United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 9780415239431. Winkler, Martin M., ed. (2004). Gladiator: Film and History. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-1042-2. Further reading Campbell, Christopher (May 6, 2020). "The Legacy of 'Gladiator'". Film School Rejects. Retrieved April 29, 2024. Crow, David (June 16, 2020). "Why Gladiator Continues to Echo Through Eternity". Den of Geek. Retrieved April 29, 2024. Franzoni, David (April 4, 1998). Gladiator: First Draft Revised (Screenplay ed.). Archived from the original on March 16, 2008. Humphreys, James (February 29, 2020). "Strength and Honor – 20 Years of Gladiator and the Last of the Sword and Sandal Epics". Cineramble. Retrieved April 29, 2024. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Gladiator (2000 film). 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Fink, Bill Westenhofer, Ben Morris, and Trevor Wood – The Golden Compass (2007)Eric Barba, Steve Preeg, Burt Dalton, and Craig Barron – The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008)Joe Letteri, Stephen Rosenbaum, Richard Baneham, and Andrew R. Jones – Avatar (2009)Paul Franklin, Chris Corbould, Andrew Lockley, and Peter Bebb – Inception (2010)Robert Legato, Joss Williams, Ben Grossmann, and Alex Henning – Hugo (2011)Bill Westenhofer, Guillaume Rocheron, Erik-Jan de Boer, and Donald R. Elliott – Life of Pi (2012)Tim Webber, Chris Lawrence, Dave Shirk, and Neil Corbould – Gravity (2013)Paul Franklin, Andrew Lockley, Ian Hunter, and Scott R. Fisher – Interstellar (2014)Mark Williams Ardington, Sara Bennett, Paul Norris, and Andrew Whitehurst – Ex Machina (2015)Robert Legato, Adam Valdez, Andrew R. Jones, and Dan Lemmon – The Jungle Book (2016)John Nelson, Gerd Nefzer, Paul Lambert, and Richard R. Hoover – Blade Runner 2049 (2017)Paul Lambert, Ian Hunter, Tristan Myles, and J. D. Schwalm – First Man (2018)Guillaume Rocheron, Greg Butler, and Dominic Tuohy – 1917 (2019)Andrew Jackson, David Lee, Andrew Lockley, and Scott R. Fisher – Tenet (2020) 2021–present Paul Lambert, Tristan Myles, Brian Connor, and Gerd Nefzer – Dune (2021)Joe Letteri, Richard Baneham, Eric Saindon, and Daniel Barrett – Avatar: The Way of Water (2022)Takashi Yamazaki, Kiyoko Shibuya, Masaki Takahashi, and Tatsuji Nojima – Godzilla Minus One (2023) vte BAFTA Award for Best Film Best Film from Any Source 1947–1967 The Best Years of Our Lives (1947)Hamlet (1948)Bicycle Thieves (1949)All About Eve (1950)La Ronde (1951)The Sound Barrier (1952)Forbidden Games (1953)The Wages of Fear (1954)Richard III (1955)Gervaise (1956)The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957)Room at the Top (1958)Ben-Hur (1959)The Apartment (1960)Ballad of a Soldier (1961)The Hustler (1961)Lawrence of Arabia (1962)Tom Jones (1963)Dr. Strangelove (1964)My Fair Lady (1965)Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966)A Man for All Seasons (1967) Best Film 1968–present The Graduate (1968)Midnight Cowboy (1969)Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1970)Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971)Cabaret (1972)Day for Night (1973)Lacombe, Lucien (1974)Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore (1975)One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1976)Annie Hall (1977)Julia (1978)Manhattan (1979)The Elephant Man (1980)Chariots of Fire (1981)Gandhi (1982)Educating Rita (1983)The Killing Fields (1984)The Purple Rose of Cairo (1985)A Room with a View (1986)Jean de Florette (1987)The Last Emperor (1988)Dead Poets Society (1989)Goodfellas (1990)The Commitments (1991)Howards End (1992)Schindler's List (1993)Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994)Sense and Sensibility (1995)The English Patient (1996)The Full Monty (1997)Shakespeare in Love (1998)American Beauty (1999)Gladiator (2000)The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)The Pianist (2002)The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)The Aviator (2004)Brokeback Mountain (2005)The Queen (2006)Atonement (2007)Slumdog Millionaire (2008)The Hurt Locker (2009)The King's Speech (2010)The Artist (2011)Argo (2012)12 Years a Slave (2013)Boyhood (2014)The Revenant (2015)La La Land (2016)Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017)Roma (2018)1917 (2019)Nomadland (2020)The Power of the Dog (2021)All Quiet on the Western Front (2022)Oppenheimer (2023) vte Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Picture Sense and Sensibility (1995)Fargo (1996)L.A. Confidential (1997)Saving Private Ryan (1998)American Beauty (1999)Gladiator (2000)A Beautiful Mind (2001)Chicago (2002)The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)Sideways (2004)Brokeback Mountain (2005)The Departed (2006)No Country for Old Men (2007)Slumdog Millionaire (2008)The Hurt Locker (2009)The Social Network (2010)The Artist (2011)Argo (2012)12 Years a Slave (2013)Boyhood (2014)Spotlight (2015)La La Land (2016)The Shape of Water (2017)Roma (2018)Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019)Nomadland (2020)The Power of the Dog (2021)Everything Everywhere All at Once (2022)Oppenheimer (2023) vte Empire Award for Best Film Braveheart (1996)Se7en (1997)Men in Black (1998)Titanic (1999)The Matrix (2000)Gladiator (2001)The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2002)The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2003)The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2004)The Bourne Supremacy (2005)King Kong (2006)Casino Royale (2007)The Bourne Ultimatum (2008)The Dark Knight (2009)Avatar (2010)Inception (2011)Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 (2012)Skyfall (2013)Gravity (2014)Interstellar (2015)The Revenant (2016)Rogue One (2017)Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2018) vte Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama 1943–1975 The Song of Bernadette (1943)Going My Way (1944)The Lost Weekend (1945)The Best Years of Our Lives (1946)Gentleman's Agreement (1947)Johnny Belinda / The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948)All the King's Men (1949)Sunset Boulevard (1950)A Place in the Sun (1951)The Greatest Show on Earth (1952)The Robe (1953)On the Waterfront (1954)East of Eden (1955)Around the World in 80 Days (1956)The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957)The Defiant Ones (1958)Ben-Hur (1959)Spartacus (1960)The Guns of Navarone (1961)Lawrence of Arabia (1962)The Cardinal (1963)Becket (1964)Doctor Zhivago (1965)A Man for All Seasons (1966)In the Heat of the Night (1967)The Lion in Winter (1968)Anne of the Thousand Days (1969)Love Story (1970)The French Connection (1971)The Godfather (1972)The Exorcist (1973)Chinatown (1974)One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) 1976–2000 Rocky (1976)The Turning Point (1977)Midnight Express (1978)Kramer vs. Kramer (1979)Ordinary People (1980)On Golden Pond (1981)E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982)Terms of Endearment (1983)Amadeus (1984)Out of Africa (1985)Platoon (1986)The Last Emperor (1987)Rain Man (1988)Born on the Fourth of July (1989)Dances With Wolves (1990)Bugsy (1991)Scent of a Woman (1992)Schindler's List (1993)Forrest Gump (1994)Sense and Sensibility (1995)The English Patient (1996)Titanic (1997)Saving Private Ryan (1998)American Beauty (1999)Gladiator (2000) 2001–present A Beautiful Mind (2001)The Hours (2002)The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)The Aviator (2004)Brokeback Mountain (2005)Babel (2006)Atonement (2007)Slumdog Millionaire (2008)Avatar (2009)The Social Network (2010)The Descendants (2011)Argo (2012)12 Years a Slave (2013)Boyhood (2014)The Revenant (2015)Moonlight (2016)Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017)Bohemian Rhapsody (2018)1917 (2019)Nomadland (2020)The Power of the Dog (2021)The Fabelmans (2022)Oppenheimer (2023) vte MTV Movie & TV Award for Best Movie Best Movie (1992–2011, 2018–present) Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1992)A Few Good Men (1993)Menace II Society (1994)Pulp Fiction (1995)Seven (1996)Scream (1997)Titanic (1998)There's Something About Mary (1999)The Matrix (2000)Gladiator (2001)The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2002)The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2003)The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2004)Napoleon Dynamite (2005)Wedding Crashers (2006)Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2007)Transformers (2008)Twilight (2009)The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2010)The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2011)Black Panther (2018)Avengers: Endgame (2019)No Award (2020)To All the Boys: Always and Forever (2021)Spider-Man: No Way Home (2022)Scream VI (2023) Movie of the Year (2012–2017) The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (2012)The Avengers (2013)The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2014)The Fault in Our Stars (2015)Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2016)Beauty and the Beast (2017) vte Nikkan Sports Film Award for Best Foreign Film The Last Emperor (1988)Rain Man (1989)Ghost (1990)Dances With Wolves (1991)Basic Instinct (1992)Unforgiven (1993)Schindler's List (1994)Speed (1995)Dead Man Walking (1996)The English Patient (1997)L.A. Confidential (1998)Elizabeth (1999)Gladiator (2000)Billy Elliot (2001)The Son's Room (2002)The Pianist (2003)The Last Samurai (2004)Million Dollar Baby (2005)Brokeback Mountain (2006)Letters from Iwo Jima (2007)No Country for Old Men (2008)Mother (2009)The Hurt Locker (2010)The King's Speech (2011)The Intouchables (2012)Les Misérables (2013)Frozen (2014)Whiplash (2015)Spotlight (2016)Dunkirk (2017)Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2018)Green Book (2019)House of Hummingbird (2020)Nomadland (2021)Top Gun: Maverick (2022)Barbie (2023)The Zone of Interest (2024) vte Producers Guild of America Award for Best Theatrical Motion Picture Driving Miss Daisy (1989)Dances With Wolves (1990)The Silence of the Lambs (1991)The Crying Game (1992)Schindler's List (1993)Forrest Gump (1994)Apollo 13 (1995)The English Patient (1996)Titanic (1997)Saving Private Ryan (1998)American Beauty (1999)Gladiator (2000)Moulin Rouge! (2001)Chicago (2002)The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)The Aviator (2004)Brokeback Mountain (2005)Little Miss Sunshine (2006)No Country for Old Men (2007)Slumdog Millionaire (2008)The Hurt Locker (2009)The King's Speech (2010)The Artist (2011)Argo (2012)12 Years a Slave / Gravity (2013)Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014)The Big Short (2015)La La Land (2016)The Shape of Water (2017)Green Book (2018)1917 (2019)Nomadland (2020)CODA (2021)Everything Everywhere All at Once (2022)Oppenheimer (2023) Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata International VIAFFAST National GermanyUnited StatesFranceBnF dataSpainIsraelCatalonia Other IdRef Categories: 2000 films2000 drama films2000s action drama films2000s adventure films2000s American films2000s British films2000s English-language films2000s historical filmsAmerican action drama filmsAmerican epic filmsAmerican films about revengeAmerican historical filmsBAFTA winners (films)Best Drama Picture Golden Globe winnersBest Film BAFTA Award winnersBest Picture Academy Award winnersBritish action filmsBritish drama filmsBritish epic filmsBritish films about revengeBritish historical filmsCultural depictions of CommodusCultural depictions of LucillaCultural depictions of Marcus AureliusDreamWorks Pictures filmsFiction about familicideFiction about regicideFilms about child deathFilms about deathFilms about gladiatorial combatFilms about patricideFilms about sibling incestFilms about the ColosseumFilms directed by Ridley ScottFilms featuring a Best Actor Academy Award–winning performanceFilms produced by Branko LustigFilms produced by Douglas WickFilms scored by Hans ZimmerFilms scored by Lisa GerrardFilms set in 2nd-century Roman EmpireFilms about ChristianityFilms set in AlgeriaFilms set in ancient RomeFilms set in AustriaFilms shot in EnglandFilms shot in ItalyFilms shot in MaltaFilms that won the Best Costume Design Academy AwardFilms that won the Best Sound Mixing Academy AwardFilms that won the Best Visual Effects Academy AwardFilms with screenplays by John Logan (writer)Films with screenplays by William NicholsonGladiator (2000 film)Historical epic filmsScott Free Productions filmsUniversal Pictures filmsEnglish-language action drama filmsEnglish-language historical filmsEnglish-language adventure films Roman Empire Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Appearance Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 395 (unified)[a] AD 395 – 476/480 (Western) AD 395–1453 (Eastern) Imperial aquila of Roman Empire Imperial aquila Roman Empire in AD 117 at its greatest territorial extent, at the time of Trajan's death Vassal states[3][b] Roman territorial evolution from the rise of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the Western Roman Empire Roman territorial evolution from the rise of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the Western Roman Empire Capital Rome (27 BC – AD 476)[c] Constantinople (330–1453)[d] Common languages Latin and Greek Regional languages Religion Imperial cult-driven polytheism (until AD 380) Nicene Christianity (officially from AD 380) Demonym(s) Roman Government Autocracy • Emperor (List) Historical era Classical era to Late Middle Ages (Timeline) Area 25 BC[16] 2,750,000 km2 (1,060,000 sq mi) AD 117[16][17] 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi) AD 390[16] 3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi) Population • 25 BC[18] 56,800,000 Currency Sestertius,[e] aureus, solidus, nomisma Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Republic Western Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Romans conquered most of this during the Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of effective sole rule in 27 BC. The western empire collapsed in 476 AD, but the eastern empire lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. By 100 BC, the city of Rome had expanded its rule to most of the Mediterranean and beyond. However, it was severely destabilised by civil wars and political conflicts, which culminated in the victory of Octavian over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the subsequent conquest of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. In 27 BC, the Roman Senate granted Octavian overarching military power (imperium) and the new title of Augustus, marking his accession as the first Roman emperor. The vast Roman territories were organized into senatorial provinces, governed by proconsuls who were appointed by lot annually, and imperial provinces, which belonged to the emperor but were governed by legates.[19] The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana (lit. 'Roman Peace'). Rome reached its greatest territorial extent under Trajan (r. 98–117 AD), but a period of increasing trouble and decline began under Commodus (r. 180–192). In the 3rd century, the Empire underwent a 49-year crisis that threatened its existence due to civil war, plagues and barbarian invasions. The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away from the state and a series of short-lived emperors led the Empire, which was later reunified under Aurelian (r. 270–275). The civil wars ended with the victory of Diocletian (r. 284–305), who set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West. Constantine the Great (r. 306–337), the first Christian emperor, moved the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium in 330, and renamed it Constantinople. The Migration Period, involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila, led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire. With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in 476 by Odoacer, the Western Empire finally collapsed. The Eastern Roman Empire survived for another millennium with Constantinople as its sole capital, until the city's fall in 1453.[f] Due to the Empire's extent and endurance, its institutions and culture had a lasting influence on the development of language, religion, art, architecture, literature, philosophy, law, and forms of government across its territories. Latin evolved into the Romance languages while Medieval Greek became the language of the East. The Empire's adoption of Christianity resulted in the formation of medieval Christendom. Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance. Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque, Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture, influencing Islamic architecture. The rediscovery of classical science and technology (which formed the basis for Islamic science) in medieval Europe contributed to the Scientific Renaissance and Scientific Revolution. Many modern legal systems, such as the Napoleonic Code, descend from Roman law. Rome's republican institutions have influenced the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, the early United States, and modern democratic republics. History Main article: History of the Roman Empire For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Roman history. See also: Campaign history of the Roman military and Roman Kingdom Duration: 39 seconds.0:39 Animated overview of the Roman territorial history from the Republic until the fall of its last remnant (the Byzantine Empire) in 1453 Transition from Republic to Empire Further information: Roman Republic Augustus of Prima Porta Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC, though not outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Thus, it was an "empire" (a great power) long before it had an emperor.[21] The Republic was not a nation-state in the modern sense, but a network of self-ruled towns (with varying degrees of independence from the Senate) and provinces administered by military commanders. It was governed by annually elected magistrates (Roman consuls above all) in conjunction with the Senate.[22] The 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors.[23][24][25] The consuls' military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium, meaning "command" (typically in a military sense).[26] Occasionally, successful consuls or generals were given the honorary title imperator (commander); this is the origin of the word emperor, since this title was always bestowed to the early emperors.[27][g] Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies, and civil wars from the late second century BC (see Crisis of the Roman Republic) while greatly extending its power beyond Italy. In 44 BC Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated by a faction that opposed his concentration of power. This faction was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian. Antony and Octavian divided the Roman world between them, but this did not last long. Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 27 BC the Senate gave him the title Augustus ("venerated") and made him princeps ("foremost") with proconsular imperium, thus beginning the Principate, the first epoch of Roman imperial history. Although the republic stood in name, Augustus had all meaningful authority.[29] During his 40-year rule, a new constitutional order emerged so that, upon his death, Tiberius would succeed him as the new de facto monarch.[30] As Roman provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it domina provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces"),[31][32][33] and – especially in relation to the first centuries of imperial stability – rectrix mundi ("governor of the world")[34][35] and omnium terrarum parens ("parent of all lands").[36][37] Pax Romana Main article: Pax Romana The so-called "Five Good Emperors" of 96–180 AD Nerva (r. 96–98) Trajan (r. 98–117) Hadrian (r. 117–138) Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161) Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). The cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent and put down "mercilessly and swiftly".[38] The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs. The Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as the victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty, followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good Emperors": Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.[39] Transition from classical to late antiquity Main articles: Later Roman Empire and Fall of the Western Roman Empire See also: Barbarian kingdoms and Byzantine Empire The Barbarian invasions consisted of the movement of (mainly) ancient Germanic peoples into Roman territory. Historically, this event marked the transition between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. In the view of contemporary Greek historian Cassius Dio, the accession of Commodus in 180 marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron",[40] a comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the Empire's decline.[41][42] In 212, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. The Severan dynasty was tumultuous; an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution and, following its collapse, the Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and plague.[43] In defining historical epochs, this crisis sometimes marks the transition from Classical to Late Antiquity. Aurelian (r. 270–275) stabilised the empire militarily and Diocletian reorganised and restored much of it in 285.[44] Diocletian's reign brought the empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity, the "Great Persecution".[45] Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate tetrarch.[46] Confident that he fixed the disorder plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, but the Tetrarchy collapsed shortly after. Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great, who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity, and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire. During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an east–west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. Julian, who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 after making Christianity the state religion.[47] The Roman Empire by 476, noting western and eastern divisions The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD Fall in the West and survival in the East The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century. The Romans fought off all invaders, most famously Attila,[48] but the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself.[49] Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer.[50][51][52] Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring Zeno sole emperor and placing himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate. In reality, Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone.[50][51][53] The Eastern Roman Empire, called the Byzantine Empire by later historians, continued until the reign of Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last Roman emperor. He died in battle in 1453 against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege of Constantinople. Mehmed II adopted the title of caesar in an attempt to claim a connection to the former Empire.[54][55] His claim was soon recognized by the Patriarchate of Constantinople, but not by most European monarchs. Geography and demography Main articles: Demography of the Roman Empire and Borders of the Roman Empire Further information: Classical demography The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.[56] The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ("empire without end"[57]) expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In Virgil's Aeneid, limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by Jupiter.[58] This claim of universal dominion was renewed when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century.[h] In addition to annexing large regions, the Romans directly altered their geography, for example cutting down entire forests.[60] Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic, though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century, when Roman control in Europe, Africa, and Asia was strengthened. Under Augustus, a "global map of the known world" was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, coinciding with the creation of the most comprehensive political geography that survives from antiquity, the Geography of Strabo.[61] When Augustus died, the account of his achievements (Res Gestae) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of the Empire.[62] Geography alongside meticulous written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration.[63] A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England, overlooking Crag Lough The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan (r. 98–117),[64] encompassing 5 million km2.[16][17] The traditional population estimate of 55–60 million inhabitants[65] accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population[66] and made it the most populous unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century.[67] Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak from 70 million to more than 100 million.[68] Each of the three largest cities in the Empire – Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch – was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century.[69] As the historian Christopher Kelly described it: Then the empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in drizzle-soaked northern England to the sun-baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine–Danube river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea, to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt. The empire completely circled the Mediterranean ... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum—'our sea'.[65] Roman cities in the Imperial period[70] Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders (fines) were marked, and the frontiers (limites) patrolled.[64] The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable.[24] Hadrian's Wall, which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort.[71] Languages Main article: Languages of the Roman Empire See also: Jireček Line Latin and Greek were the main languages of the Empire,[i] but the Empire was deliberately multilingual.[76] Andrew Wallace-Hadrill says "The main desire of the Roman government was to make itself understood".[77] At the start of the Empire, knowledge of Greek was useful to pass as educated nobility and knowledge of Latin was useful for a career in the military, government, or law.[78] Bilingual inscriptions indicate the everyday interpenetration of the two languages.[79] Latin and Greek's mutual linguistic and cultural influence is a complex topic.[80] Latin words incorporated into Greek were very common by the early imperial era, especially for military, administration, and trade and commerce matters.[81] Greek grammar, literature, poetry and philosophy shaped Latin language and culture.[82][83] A 5th-century papyrus showing a parallel Latin-Greek text of a speech by Cicero[84] There was never a legal requirement for Latin in the Empire, but it represented a certain status.[85] High standards of Latin, Latinitas, started with the advent of Latin literature.[86] Due to the flexible language policy of the Empire, a natural competition of language emerged that spurred Latinitas, to defend Latin against the stronger cultural influence of Greek.[87] Over time Latin usage was used to project power and a higher social class.[88][89] Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a "rule" that first started during the Punic Wars.[90] Different emperors up until Justinian would attempt to require the use of Latin in various sections of the administration but there is no evidence that a linguistic imperialism existed during the early Empire.[91] After all freeborn inhabitants were universally enfranchised in 212, many Roman citizens would have lacked a knowledge of Latin.[92] The wide use of Koine Greek was what enabled the spread of Christianity and reflects its role as the lingua franca of the Mediterranean during the time of the Empire.[93] Following Diocletian's reforms in the 3rd century CE, there was a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the west.[94] Spoken Latin later fragmented into the incipient romance languages in the 7th century CE following the collapse of the Empire's west.[95] The dominance of Latin and Greek among the literate elite obscure the continuity of other spoken languages within the Empire.[96] Latin, referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin, gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages.[97][98] References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages, particularly in Egypt with Coptic, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube. Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding of laws and oaths.[99] In Africa, Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions into the 2nd century.[96] In Syria, Palmyrene soldiers used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions, an exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military.[100] The last reference to Gaulish was between 560 and 575.[101][102] The emergent Gallo-Romance languages would then be shaped by Gaulish.[103] Proto-Basque or Aquitanian evolved with Latin loan words to modern Basque.[104] The Thracian language, as were several now-extinct languages in Anatolia, are attested in Imperial-era inscriptions.[93][96] "Gate of Domitian and Trajan" at the northern entrance of the Temple of Hathor, and Roman emperor Domitian as Pharaoh of Egypt on the same gate, together with Egyptian hieroglyphs.[105] Society Further information: Ancient Roman society A multigenerational banquet depicted on a wall painting from Pompeii (1st century AD) The Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "astonishing cohesive capacity" to create shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples.[106] Public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as forums, amphitheatres, racetracks and baths—helped foster a sense of "Romanness".[107] Roman society had multiple, overlapping social hierarchies.[108] The civil war preceding Augustus caused upheaval,[109] but did not effect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power. From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely added to the social pyramid.[110] Personal relationships—patronage, friendship (amicitia), family, marriage—continued to influence politics.[111] By the time of Nero, however, it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen, or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator.[112] The blurring of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility,[113] both upward and downward, to a greater extent than all other well-documented ancient societies.[114] Women, freedmen, and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them.[115] Social life, particularly for those whose personal resources were limited, was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities (collegia and sodalitates): professional and trade guilds, veterans' groups, religious sodalities, drinking and dining clubs,[116] performing troupes,[117] and burial societies.[118] Legal status Main articles: Status in Roman legal system and Roman citizenship According to the jurist Gaius, the essential distinction in the Roman "law of persons" was that all humans were either free (liberi) or slaves (servi).[119] The legal status of free persons was further defined by their citizenship. Most citizens held limited rights (such as the ius Latinum, "Latin right"), but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by non-citizens. Free people not considered citizens, but living within the Roman world, were peregrini, non-Romans.[120] In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. This legal egalitarianism required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that distinguished between citizens and non-citizens.[121] Women in Roman law Main article: Women in ancient Rome Left: Fresco of an auburn maiden reading a text, Pompeian Fourth Style (60–79 AD), Pompeii, Italy Right: Bronze statuette (1st century AD) of a young woman reading, based on a Hellenistic original Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. A mother's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens").[j] A Roman woman kept her own family name (nomen) for life. Children most often took the father's name, with some exceptions.[124] Women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business.[125] Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could hold considerable fortunes.[126] The archaic manus marriage in which the woman was subject to her husband's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage. Technically she remained under her father's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated.[127] This arrangement was a factor in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed compared to many other cultures up to the modern period:[128] although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in daily life,[129] and her husband had no legal power over her.[130] Although it was a point of pride to be a "one-man woman" (univira) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to divorce, nor to speedy remarriage after being widowed or divorced.[131] Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will.[132] A mother's right to own and dispose of property, including setting the terms of her will, gave her enormous influence over her sons into adulthood.[133] Dressing of a priestess or bride, Roman fresco from Herculaneum, Italy (30–40 AD) As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order, moral legislation attempted to regulate conduct as a means of promoting "family values". Adultery was criminalized,[134] and defined broadly as an illicit sex act (stuprum) between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband. That is, a double standard was in place: a married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute or person of marginalized status.[135] Childbearing was encouraged: a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom (the ius trium liberorum).[136] Slaves and the law Main article: Slavery in ancient Rome At the time of Augustus, as many as 35% of the people in Roman Italy were slaves,[137] making Rome one of five historical "slave societies" in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy.[k][137] Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility.[138] In urban settings, slaves might be professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants; the majority of slaves provided trained or unskilled labour. Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on the exploitation of slaves. Outside Italy, slaves were on average an estimated 10 to 20% of the population, sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces.[139] Although slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until gradually ceasing in the 6th and 7th centuries with the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy.[140] Slave holding writing tablets for his master (relief from a 4th-century sarcophagus) Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate".[141] Slaves were considered property and had no legal personhood. They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens, sexual exploitation, torture, and summary execution. A slave could not as a matter of law be raped; a slave's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian Law.[142] Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium, but their unions were sometimes recognized.[143] Technically, a slave could not own property,[144] but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual fund (peculium) that he could use, depending on the degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave.[145] Within a household or workplace, a hierarchy of slaves might exist, with one slave acting as the master of others.[146] Talented slaves might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom, or be manumitted for services rendered. Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law (Lex Fufia Caninia) limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will.[147] Following the Servile Wars of the Republic, legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves.[148] Over time slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution, as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves.[149] The burgeoning trade in eunuchs in the late 1st century prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain".[150] Roman slavery was not based on race.[151] Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians,[152] with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) estimated at 5% of the total in the capital at its peak, where their number was largest. Foreign slaves had higher mortality and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions.[153] The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[154] During the period of republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves. Slaves were also traded in markets and sometimes sold by pirates. Infant abandonment and self-enslavement among the poor were other sources.[155] Vernae, by contrast, were "homegrown" slaves born to female slaves within the household, estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of the family household and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family.[156] Freedmen Cinerary urn for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women, probably his wife and daughter Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens; any future children of a freedman were born free, with full rights of citizenship. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed active political freedom (libertas), including the right to vote.[157] His former master became his patron (patronus): the two continued to have customary and legal obligations to each other.[158][159] A freedman was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods, but could play a priestly role. He could not marry a woman from a senatorial family, nor achieve legitimate senatorial rank himself, but during the early Empire, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law.[159] The rise of successful freedmen—through political influence or wealth—is a characteristic of early Imperial society. The prosperity of a high-achieving group of freedmen is attested by inscriptions throughout the Empire. Census rank See also: Senate of the Roman Empire, Equestrian order, and Decurion (administrative) The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) is translated variously and inexactly into English as "class, order, rank". One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged.[160] Two of the highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, cities or colonies were led by decurions, also known as curiales.[161] Fragment of a sarcophagus depicting Gordian III and senators (3rd century) "Senator" was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an executive magistrate. A senator also had to meet a minimum property requirement of 1 million sestertii.[162] Not all men who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat, which required legal domicile at Rome. Emperors often filled vacancies in the 600-member body by appointment.[163] A senator's son belonged to the ordo senatorius, but he had to qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate. A senator could be removed for violating moral standards.[164] In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from Italy, with some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek-speaking provinces of the East began to be added under Vespasian.[165] The first senator from the easternmost province, Cappadocia, was admitted under Marcus Aurelius.[l] By the Severan dynasty (193–235), Italians made up less than half the Senate.[167] During the 3rd century, domicile at Rome became impractical, and inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland (patria).[164] Senators were the traditional governing class who rose through the cursus honorum, the political career track, but equestrians often possessed greater wealth and political power. Membership in the equestrian order was based on property; in Rome's early days, equites or knights had been distinguished by their ability to serve as mounted warriors, but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire.[m] A census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified a man as an equestrian.[169] The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified, and in 14 AD, a thousand equestrians were registered at Cádiz and Padua alone.[n][171] Equestrians rose through a military career track (tres militiae) to become highly placed prefects and procurators within the Imperial administration.[172] The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the early Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later European nobility, a Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands.[173] Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges, but also responsibilities. In antiquity, a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works, events, and services (munera). Maintaining one's rank required massive personal expenditures.[174] Decurions were so vital for the functioning of cities that in the later Empire, as the ranks of the town councils became depleted, those who had risen to the Senate were encouraged to return to their hometowns, in an effort to sustain civic life.[175] In the later Empire, the dignitas ("worth, esteem") that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as vir illustris ("illustrious man").[176] The appellation clarissimus (Greek lamprotatos) was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family, including women.[177] "Grades" of equestrian status proliferated.[178] Unequal justice Condemned man attacked by a leopard in the arena (3rd-century mosaic from Tunisia) As the republican principle of citizens' equality under the law faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours (honestiores) and humbler folk (humiliores). In general, honestiores were the members of the three higher "orders", along with certain military officers.[179] The granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority affirmed, particularly within the justice system.[180] Sentencing depended on the judgment of the presiding official as to the relative "worth" (dignitas) of the defendant: an honestior could pay a fine for a crime for which an humilior might receive a scourging.[181] Execution, which was an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic,[182] could be quick and relatively painless for honestiores, while humiliores might suffer the kinds of torturous death previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts.[183] In the early Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores, especially if they declined to fulfil religious responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created the conditions of martyrdom.[184] Government and military Main article: Constitution of the Roman Empire Forum of Gerasa (Jerash in present-day Jordan), with columns marking a covered walkway (stoa) for vendor stalls, and a semicircular space for public speaking The three major elements of the Imperial state were the central government, the military, and the provincial government.[185] The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens, agricultural fields, and religious sites.[186] The Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to rule through force alone. Cooperation with local elites was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions.[187] Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and relative independence incentivized compliance.[188] Roman government was thus limited, but efficient in its use of available resources.[189] Central government See also: Roman emperor and Senate of the Roman Empire Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161) wearing a toga (Hermitage Museum) The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with divinely sanctioned authority (auctoritas). The rite of apotheosis (also called consecratio) signified the deceased emperor's deification.[190] The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of powers from several republican offices.[191] The emperor made himself the central religious authority as pontifex maximus, and centralized the right to declare war, ratify treaties, and negotiate with foreign leaders.[192] While these functions were clearly defined during the Principate, the emperor's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, culminating in the Dominate.[193] The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy- and decision-making, but in the early Principate, he was expected to be accessible and deal personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually.[194] The Julio-Claudian emperors relied on an informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians, but trusted slaves and freedmen.[195] After Nero, the influence of the latter was regarded with suspicion, and the emperor's council (consilium) became subject to official appointment for greater transparency.[196] Though the Senate took a lead in policy discussions until the end of the Antonine dynasty, equestrians played an increasingly important role in the consilium.[197] The women of the emperor's family often intervened directly in his decisions.[198] Access to the emperor might be gained at the daily reception (salutatio), a development of the traditional homage a client paid to his patron; public banquets hosted at the palace; and religious ceremonies. The common people who lacked this access could manifest their approval or displeasure as a group at games.[199] By the 4th century, the Christian emperors became remote figureheads who issued general rulings, no longer responding to individual petitions.[200] Although the Senate could do little short of assassination and open rebellion to contravene the will of the emperor, it retained its symbolic political centrality.[201] The Senate legitimated the emperor's rule, and the emperor employed senators as legates (legati): generals, diplomats, and administrators.[202] The practical source of an emperor's power and authority was the military. The legionaries were paid by the Imperial treasury, and swore an annual oath of loyalty to the emperor.[203] Most emperors chose a successor, usually a close family member or adopted heir. The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive without the allegiance of the Praetorian Guard and the legions. To secure their loyalty, several emperors paid the donativum, a monetary reward. In theory, the Senate was entitled to choose the new emperor, but did so mindful of acclamation by the army or Praetorians.[204] Military Main articles: Imperial Roman army, Late Roman army, and Structural history of the Roman military Winged Victory, ancient Roman fresco of the Neronian era from Pompeii The Roman Empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in 125 AD After the Punic Wars, the Roman army comprised professional soldiers who volunteered for 20 years of active duty and five as reserves. The transition to a professional military began during the late Republic and was one of the many profound shifts away from republicanism, under which an army of conscript citizens defended the homeland against a specific threat. The Romans expanded their war machine by "organizing the communities that they conquered in Italy into a system that generated huge reservoirs of manpower for their army".[205] By Imperial times, military service was a full-time career.[206] The pervasiveness of military garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of Romanization.[207] The primary mission of the military of the early empire was to preserve the Pax Romana.[208] The three major divisions of the military were: the garrison at Rome, comprising the Praetorian Guard, the cohortes urbanae and the vigiles, who functioned as police and firefighters; the provincial army, comprising the Roman legions and the auxiliaries provided by the provinces (auxilia); the navy. Relief panel from Trajan's Column in Rome, showing the building of a fort and the reception of a Dacian embassy Through his military reforms, which included consolidating or disbanding units of questionable loyalty, Augustus regularized the legion. A legion was organized into ten cohorts, each of which comprised six centuries, with a century further made up of ten squads (contubernia); the exact size of the Imperial legion, which was likely determined by logistics, has been estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280.[209] After Germanic tribes wiped out three legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, the number of legions was increased from 25 to around 30.[210] The army had about 300,000 soldiers in the 1st century, and under 400,000 in the 2nd, "significantly smaller" than the collective armed forces of the conquered territories. No more than 2% of adult males living in the Empire served in the Imperial army.[211] Augustus also created the Praetorian Guard: nine cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the public peace, which were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the Praetorians served only sixteen years.[212] The auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort strength, they were paid less than the legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with Roman citizenship, also extended to their sons. According to Tacitus[213] there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries—thus, around 125,000 men, implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments.[214] The Roman cavalry of the earliest Empire were primarily from Celtic, Hispanic or Germanic areas. Several aspects of training and equipment derived from the Celts.[215] The Roman navy not only aided in the supply and transport of the legions but also in the protection of the frontiers along the rivers Rhine and Danube. Another duty was protecting maritime trade against pirates. It patrolled the Mediterranean, parts of the North Atlantic coasts, and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the army was considered the senior and more prestigious branch.[216] Provincial government An annexed territory became a Roman province in three steps: making a register of cities, taking a census, and surveying the land.[217] Further government recordkeeping included births and deaths, real estate transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings.[218] In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the central government sent out around 160 officials annually to govern outside Italy.[22] Among these officials were the Roman governors: magistrates elected at Rome who in the name of the Roman people governed senatorial provinces; or governors, usually of equestrian rank, who held their imperium on behalf of the emperor in imperial provinces, most notably Roman Egypt.[219] A governor had to make himself accessible to the people he governed, but he could delegate various duties.[220] His staff, however, was minimal: his official attendants (apparitores), including lictors, heralds, messengers, scribes, and bodyguards; legates, both civil and military, usually of equestrian rank; and friends who accompanied him unofficially.[220] Other officials were appointed as supervisors of government finances.[22] Separating fiscal responsibility from justice and administration was a reform of the Imperial era, to avoid provincial governors and tax farmers exploiting local populations for personal gain.[221] Equestrian procurators, whose authority was originally "extra-judicial and extra-constitutional", managed both state-owned property and the personal property of the emperor (res privata).[220] Because Roman government officials were few, a provincial who needed help with a legal dispute or criminal case might seek out any Roman perceived to have some official capacity.[222] Law Main article: Roman law Roman portraiture frescos from Pompeii, 1st century AD, depicting two different men wearing laurel wreaths, one holding the rotulus (blondish figure, left), the other a volumen (brunet figure, right), both made of papyrus Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces. Most parts of the Eastern Empire already had well-established law codes and juridical procedures.[109] Generally, it was Roman policy to respect the mos regionis ("regional tradition" or "law of the land") and to regard local laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability.[109][223] The compatibility of Roman and local law was thought to reflect an underlying ius gentium, the "law of nations" or international law regarded as common and customary.[224] If provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, Roman courts heard appeals, and the emperor held final decision-making authority.[109][223][o] In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and private property rights may have been a novelty of the Roman era, particularly among Celts. Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite.[109] The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law, replacing local law codes that had applied to non-citizens. Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century included two major compilations of law in four years, the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus, to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards.[225] The pervasiveness of Roman law throughout Western Europe enormously influenced the Western legal tradition, reflected by continued use of Latin legal terminology in modern law. Taxation Further information: Taxation in ancient Rome The Temple of Saturn, a religious monument that housed the treasury in ancient Rome Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5% of its gross product.[226] The typical tax rate for individuals ranged from 2 to 5%.[227] The tax code was "bewildering" in its complicated system of direct and indirect taxes, some paid in cash and some in kind. Taxes might be specific to a province, or kinds of properties such as fisheries; they might be temporary.[228] Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain the military,[229] and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of booty.[230] In-kind taxes were accepted from less-monetized areas, particularly those who could supply grain or goods to army camps.[231] The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals, who paid a poll tax and a tax on their land, construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity.[227] Tax obligations were determined by the census: each head of household provided a headcount of his household, as well as an accounting of his property.[232] A major source of indirect-tax revenue was the portoria, customs and tolls on trade, including among provinces.[227] Towards the end of his reign, Augustus instituted a 4% tax on the sale of slaves,[233] which Nero shifted from the purchaser to the dealers, who responded by raising their prices.[234] An owner who manumitted a slave paid a "freedom tax", calculated at 5% of value.[p] An inheritance tax of 5% was assessed when Roman citizens above a certain net worth left property to anyone outside their immediate family. Revenues from the estate tax and from an auction tax went towards the veterans' pension fund (aerarium militare).[227] Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the "super-rich", but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire.[66] Economy Main article: Roman economy A green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb in Guangxi, China The Empire is best thought of as a network of regional economies, based on a form of "political capitalism" in which the state regulated commerce to assure its own revenues.[235] Economic growth, though not comparable to modern economies, was greater than that of most other societies prior to industrialization.[236] Territorial conquests permitted a large-scale reorganization of land use that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization, particularly in north Africa.[237] Some cities were known for particular industries. The scale of urban building indicates a significant construction industry.[237] Papyri preserve complex accounting methods that suggest elements of economic rationalism,[237] and the Empire was highly monetized.[238] Although the means of communication and transport were limited in antiquity, transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly, and trade routes connected regional economies.[239] The supply contracts for the army drew on local suppliers near the base (castrum), throughout the province, and across provincial borders.[240] Economic historians vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product during the Principate.[241] In the sample years of 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 HS. The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated as 40[242] to 66%[243] higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income. Economic dynamism resulted in social mobility. Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite society, wealth requirements for rank indicate a strong tendency towards plutocracy. Prestige could be obtained through investing one's wealth in grand estates or townhouses, luxury items, public entertainments, funerary monuments, and religious dedications. Guilds (collegia) and corporations (corpora) provided support for individuals to succeed through networking.[179] "There can be little doubt that the lower classes of ... provincial towns of the Roman Empire enjoyed a high standard of living not equaled again in Western Europe until the 19th century".[244] Households in the top 1.5% of income distribution captured about 20% of income. The "vast majority" produced more than half of the total income, but lived near subsistence.[245] Currency and banking See also: Roman currency and Roman finance Sestertius issued under Hadrian circa AD 134–138 Solidus issued under Constantine II, and on the reverse Victoria, one of the last deities to appear on Roman coins, gradually transforming into an angel under Christian rule[246] The early Empire was monetized to a near-universal extent, using money as a way to express prices and debts.[247] The sestertius (English "sesterces", symbolized as HS) was the basic unit of reckoning value into the 4th century,[248] though the silver denarius, worth four sesterces, was also used beginning in the Severan dynasty.[249] The smallest coin commonly circulated was the bronze as, one-tenth denarius.[250] Bullion and ingots seem not to have counted as pecunia ("money") and were used only on the frontiers. Romans in the first and second centuries counted coins, rather than weighing them—an indication that the coin was valued on its face. This tendency towards fiat money led to the debasement of Roman coinage in the later Empire.[251] The standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade and market integration.[247] The high amount of metal coinage in circulation increased the money supply for trading or saving.[252] Rome had no central bank, and regulation of the banking system was minimal. Banks of classical antiquity typically kept less in reserves than the full total of customers' deposits. A typical bank had fairly limited capital, and often only one principal. Seneca assumes that anyone involved in Roman commerce needs access to credit.[251] A professional deposit banker received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties. The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers.[253] The holder of a debt could use it as a means of payment by transferring it to another party, without cash changing hands. Although it has sometimes been thought that ancient Rome lacked documentary transactions, the system of banks throughout the Empire permitted the exchange of large sums without physically transferring coins, in part because of the risks of moving large amounts of cash. Only one serious credit shortage is known to have occurred in the early Empire, in 33 AD;[254] generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers.[251] The central government itself did not borrow money, and without public debt had to fund deficits from cash reserves.[255] Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties debased the currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls.[248] Sudden inflation under Commodus damaged the credit market.[251] In the mid-200s, the supply of specie contracted sharply.[248] Conditions during the Crisis of the Third Century—such as reductions in long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies—greatly diminished the money supply and the banking sector.[248][251] Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or fiduciary currency, general economic anxieties came to a head under Aurelian, and bankers lost confidence in coins. Despite Diocletian's introduction of the gold solidus and monetary reforms, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness.[251] Mining and metallurgy Main articles: Mining in ancient Rome and Roman metallurgy Landscape resulting from the ruina montium mining technique at Las Médulas, Spain, one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire The main mining regions of the Empire were the Iberian Peninsula (silver, copper, lead, iron and gold);[4] Gaul (gold, silver, iron);[256] Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin),[257] the Danubian provinces (gold, iron);[258] Macedonia and Thrace (gold, silver); and Asia Minor (gold, silver, iron, tin). Intensive large-scale mining—of alluvial deposits, and by means of open-cast mining and underground mining—took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century, when the instability of the Empire disrupted production.[citation needed] Hydraulic mining allowed base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale.[259] The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 tonnes.[260] Copper and lead production levels were unmatched until the Industrial Revolution.[261][262][263][264] At its peak around the mid-2nd century, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[263][265] As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the Greenland ice sheet quadrupled over prehistoric levels during the Imperial era and dropped thereafter.[266] Transportation and communication Further information: Cursus publicus The Tabula Peutingeriana (Latin for "The Peutinger Map") an Itinerarium, often assumed to be based on the Roman cursus publicus The Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they called "our sea" (Mare Nostrum).[267] Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as major rivers.[69] Transport by water was preferred where possible, as moving commodities by land was more difficult.[268] Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers.[269] Land transport utilized the advanced system of Roman roads, called "viae". These roads were primarily built for military purposes,[270] but also served commercial ends. The in-kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the cursus publicus, the state mail and transport service established by Augustus.[231] Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve Roman miles, and tended to grow into villages or trading posts.[271] A mansio (plural mansiones) was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the cursus publicus. The distance between mansiones was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day.[271] Carts were usually pulled by mules, travelling about 4 mph.[272] Trade and commodities See also: Roman commerce, Indo-Roman trade relations, and Sino-Roman relations Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far away as China and India.[273] Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along the Silk Road; Indian trade also occurred by sea from Egyptian ports. The main commodity was grain.[274] Also traded were olive oil, foodstuffs, garum (fish sauce), slaves, ore and manufactured metal objects, fibres and textiles, timber, pottery, glassware, marble, papyrus, spices and materia medica, ivory, pearls, and gemstones.[275] Though most provinces could produce wine, regional varietals were desirable and wine was a central trade good.[276] Labour and occupations Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the fullonica of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in Rome and 85 in Pompeii.[211] Professional associations or trade guilds (collegia) are attested for a wide range of occupations, some quite specialized.[179] Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories: domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs; imperial or public service; urban crafts and services; agriculture; and mining. Convicts provided much of the labour in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal.[277] In practice, there was little division of labour between slave and free,[109] and most workers were illiterate and without special skills.[278] The greatest number of common labourers were employed in agriculture: in Italian industrial farming (latifundia), these may have been mostly slaves, but elsewhere slave farm labour was probably less important.[109] Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments were traded and products were often named for peoples or towns, like a fashion "label".[279] Better ready-to-wear was exported by local businessmen (negotiatores or mercatores).[280] Finished garments might be retailed by their sales agents, by vestiarii (clothing dealers), or peddled by itinerant merchants.[280] The fullers (fullones) and dye workers (coloratores) had their own guilds.[281] Centonarii were guild workers who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into pieced goods.[q] Recreation of a deer hunt inspired by hunting scenes represented in Roman art. Architecture and engineering Main articles: Ancient Roman architecture, Roman engineering, and Roman technology The Flavian Amphitheatre, more commonly known as the Colosseum The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, vault, and dome. Some Roman structures still stand today, due in part to sophisticated methods of making cements and concrete.[284] Roman temples developed Etruscan and Greek forms, with some distinctive elements. Roman roads are considered the most advanced built until the early 19th century.[citation needed] Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges, built from stone (and in most cases concrete) with the arch as the basic structure. The largest Roman bridge was Trajan's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built.[285] The Romans built many dams and reservoirs for water collection, such as the Subiaco Dams, two of which fed the Anio Novus, one of the largest aqueducts of Rome.[286] The Pont du Gard aqueduct, which crosses the river Gardon in southern France, is on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts. De aquaeductu, a treatise by Frontinus, who served as water commissioner, reflects the administrative importance placed on the water supply. Masonry channels carried water along a precise gradient, using gravity alone. It was then collected in tanks and fed through pipes to public fountains, baths, toilets, or industrial sites.[287] The main aqueducts in Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia.[288] The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a route of more than 336 km.[289] Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerance, and to a technological standard not equalled until modern times.[290] The Romans also used aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire.[291] Insulated glazing (or "double glazing") was used in the construction of public baths. Elite housing in cooler climates might have hypocausts, a form of central heating. The Romans were the first culture to assemble all essential components of the much later steam engine: the crank and connecting rod system, Hero's aeolipile (generating steam power), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water pumps), and gearing (in water mills and clocks).[292] Daily life Main article: Culture of ancient Rome Cityscape from the Villa Boscoreale (60s AD) City and country The city was viewed as fostering civilization by being "properly designed, ordered, and adorned".[293] Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome, supported public displays of art that expressed imperial ideology, and reorganized the city into neighbourhoods (vici) administered at the local level with police and firefighting services.[294] A focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the Campus Martius, an open area outside the city centre: the Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae) was located there, as was an obelisk imported from Egypt that formed the pointer (gnomon) of a horologium. With its public gardens, the Campus was among the most attractive places in Rome to visit.[294] City planning and urban lifestyles was influenced by the Greeks early on,[295] and in the Eastern Empire, Roman rule shaped the development of cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character. Cities such as Athens, Aphrodisias, Ephesus and Gerasa tailored city planning and architecture to imperial ideals, while expressing their individual identity and regional preeminence.[296] In areas inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples, Rome encouraged the development of urban centres with stone temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheatres, often on or near the sites of preexisting walled settlements known as oppida.[297][298][r] Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic coastal cities.[271] Aquae Sulis in Bath, England: architectural features above the level of the pillar bases are a later reconstruction. The network of cities (coloniae, municipia, civitates or in Greek terms poleis) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana.[200] Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries were encouraged to "inculcate the habits of peacetime".[300] As the classicist Clifford Ando noted: Most of the cultural appurtenances popularly associated with imperial culture—public cult and its games and civic banquets, competitions for artists, speakers, and athletes, as well as the funding of the great majority of public buildings and public display of art—were financed by private individuals, whose expenditures in this regard helped to justify their economic power and legal and provincial privileges.[301] Public toilets (latrinae) from Ostia Antica In the city of Rome, most people lived in multistory apartment buildings (insulae) that were often squalid firetraps. Public facilities—such as baths (thermae), toilets with running water (latrinae), basins or elaborate fountains (nymphea) delivering fresh water,[298] and large-scale entertainments such as chariot races and gladiator combat—were aimed primarily at the common people.[302] The public baths served hygienic, social and cultural functions.[303] Bathing was the focus of daily socializing.[304] Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered communal bathing in three temperatures, with amenities that might include an exercise room, sauna, exfoliation spa, ball court, or outdoor swimming pool. Baths had hypocaust heating: the floors were suspended over hot-air channels.[305] Public baths were part of urban culture throughout the provinces, but in the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing. Christians were advised to go to the baths only for hygiene.[306] Reconstructed peristyle garden based on the House of the Vettii Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses: a townhouse (domus) and at least one luxury home (villa) outside the city. The domus was a privately owned single-family house, and might be furnished with a private bath (balneum),[305] but it was not a place to retreat from public life.[307] Although some neighbourhoods show a higher concentration of such houses, they were not segregated enclaves. The domus was meant to be visible and accessible. The atrium served as a reception hall in which the paterfamilias (head of household) met with clients every morning.[294] It was a centre of family religious rites, containing a shrine and images of family ancestors.[308] The houses were located on busy public roads, and ground-level spaces were often rented out as shops (tabernae).[309] In addition to a kitchen garden—windowboxes might substitute in the insulae—townhouses typically enclosed a peristyle garden.[310] The villa by contrast was an escape from the city, and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances intellectual and artistic interests (otium) with an appreciation of nature and agriculture.[311] Ideally a villa commanded a view or vista, carefully framed by the architectural design.[312] Augustus' programme of urban renewal, and the growth of Rome's population to as many as one million, was accompanied by nostalgia for rural life. Poetry idealized the lives of farmers and shepherds. Interior decorating often featured painted gardens, fountains, landscapes, vegetative ornament,[312] and animals, rendered accurately enough to be identified by species.[313] On a more practical level, the central government took an active interest in supporting agriculture.[314] Producing food was the priority of land use.[315] Larger farms (latifundia) achieved an economy of scale that sustained urban life.[314] Small farmers benefited from the development of local markets in towns and trade centres. Agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and selective breeding were disseminated throughout the Empire, and new crops were introduced from one province to another.[316] Bread stall, from a Pompeiian wall painting Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide a grain dole (Cura Annonae) to citizens who registered for it[314] (about 200,000–250,000 adult males in Rome).[317] The dole cost at least 15% of state revenues,[314] but improved living conditions among the lower classes,[318] and subsidized the rich by allowing workers to spend more of their earnings on the wine and olive oil produced on estates.[314] The grain dole also had symbolic value: it affirmed the emperor's position as universal benefactor, and the right of citizens to share in "the fruits of conquest".[314] The annona, public facilities, and spectacular entertainments mitigated the otherwise dreary living conditions of lower-class Romans, and kept social unrest in check. The satirist Juvenal, however, saw "bread and circuses" (panem et circenses) as emblematic of the loss of republican political liberty:[319] The public has long since cast off its cares: the people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things: bread and circuses.[320] Health and disease Further information: Disease in Imperial Rome, Antonine plague, and Plague of Cyprian Epidemics were common in the ancient world, and occasional pandemics in the Empire killed millions. The Roman population was unhealthy. About 20 percent—a large percentage by ancient standards—lived in cities, Rome being the largest. The cities were a "demographic sink": the death rate exceeded the birth rate and constant immigration was necessary to maintain the population. Average lifespan is estimated at the mid-twenties, and perhaps more than half of children died before reaching adulthood. Dense urban populations and poor sanitation contributed to disease. Land and sea connections facilitated and sped the transfer of infectious diseases across the empire's territories. The rich were not immune; only two of emperor Marcus Aurelius's fourteen children are known to have reached adulthood.[321] The importance of a good diet to health was recognized by medical writers such as Galen (2nd century). Views on nutrition were influenced by beliefs like humoral theory.[322] A good indicator of nutrition and disease burden is average height: the average Roman was shorter in stature than the population of pre-Roman Italian societies and medieval Europe.[323] Food and dining Main article: Food and dining in the Roman Empire See also: Ancient Roman cuisine and Ancient Rome and wine Still life on a 2nd-century Roman mosaic Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, though a charcoal brazier could be used for rudimentary cookery.[324] Prepared food was sold at pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls (tabernae, cauponae, popinae, thermopolia).[325] Carryout and restaurants were for the lower classes; fine dining appeared only at dinner parties in wealthy homes with a chef (archimagirus) and kitchen staff,[326] or banquets hosted by social clubs (collegia).[327] Most Romans consumed at least 70% of their daily calories in the form of cereals and legumes.[328] Puls (pottage) was considered the food of the Romans,[329] and could be elaborated to produce dishes similar to polenta or risotto.[330] Urban populations and the military preferred bread.[328] By the reign of Aurelian, the state had begun to distribute the annona as a daily ration of bread baked in state factories, and added olive oil, wine, and pork to the dole.[331] Roman literature focuses on the dining habits of the upper classes,[332] for whom the evening meal (cena) had important social functions.[333] Guests were entertained in a finely decorated dining room (triclinium) furnished with couches. By the late Republic, women dined, reclined, and drank wine along with men.[334] The poet Martial describes a dinner, beginning with the gustatio ("tasting" or "appetizer") salad. The main course was kid, beans, greens, a chicken, and leftover ham, followed by a dessert of fruit and wine.[335] Roman "foodies" indulged in wild game, fowl such as peacock and flamingo, large fish (mullet was especially prized), and shellfish. Luxury ingredients were imported from the far reaches of empire.[336] A book-length collection of Roman recipes is attributed to Apicius, a name for several figures in antiquity that became synonymous with "gourmet".[337] Refined cuisine could be moralized as a sign of either civilized progress or decadent decline.[338] Most often, because of the importance of landowning in Roman culture, produce—cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruit—were considered more civilized foods than meat. The Mediterranean staples of bread, wine, and oil were sacralized by Roman Christianity, while Germanic meat consumption became a mark of paganism.[339] Some philosophers and Christians resisted the demands of the body and the pleasures of food, and adopted fasting as an ideal.[340] Food became simpler in general as urban life in the West diminished and trade routes were disrupted;[341] the Church formally discouraged gluttony,[342] and hunting and pastoralism were seen as simple and virtuous.[341] Spectacles See also: Ludi, Chariot racing, and Recitationes A victor in his four-horse chariot When Juvenal complained that the Roman people had exchanged their political liberty for "bread and circuses", he was referring to the state-provided grain dole and the circenses, events held in the entertainment venue called a circus. The largest such venue in Rome was the Circus Maximus, the setting of horse races, chariot races, the equestrian Troy Game, staged beast hunts (venationes), athletic contests, gladiator combat, and historical re-enactments. From earliest times, several religious festivals had featured games (ludi), primarily horse and chariot races (ludi circenses).[343] The races retained religious significance in connection with agriculture, initiation, and the cycle of birth and death.[s] Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year; by the reign of Marcus Aurelius, this had expanded to 135.[345] Circus games were preceded by an elaborate parade (pompa circensis) that ended at the venue.[346] Competitive events were held also in smaller venues such as the amphitheatre, which became the characteristic Roman spectacle venue, and stadium. Greek-style athletics included footraces, boxing, wrestling, and the pancratium.[347] Aquatic displays, such as the mock sea battle (naumachia) and a form of "water ballet", were presented in engineered pools.[348] State-supported theatrical events (ludi scaenici) took place on temple steps or in grand stone theatres, or in the smaller enclosed theatre called an odeon.[349] Circuses were the largest structure regularly built in the Roman world.[350] The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome.[351] Many Roman amphitheatres, circuses and theatres built in cities outside Italy are visible as ruins today.[351] The local ruling elite were responsible for sponsoring spectacles and arena events, which both enhanced their status and drained their resources.[183] The physical arrangement of the amphitheatre represented the order of Roman society: the emperor in his opulent box; senators and equestrians in reserved advantageous seats; women seated at a remove from the action; slaves given the worst places, and everybody else in-between.[352] The crowd could call for an outcome by booing or cheering, but the emperor had the final say. Spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest, and emperors sometimes had to deploy force to put down crowd unrest, most notoriously at the Nika riots in 532.[353] The Zliten mosaic, from a dining room in present-day Libya, depicts a series of arena scenes: from top, musicians; gladiators; beast fighters; and convicts condemned to the beasts[354] The chariot teams were known by the colours they wore. Fan loyalty was fierce and at times erupted into sports riots.[355] Racing was perilous, but charioteers were among the most celebrated and well-compensated athletes.[356] Circuses were designed to ensure that no team had an unfair advantage and to minimize collisions (naufragia),[357] which were nonetheless frequent and satisfying to the crowd.[358] The races retained a magical aura through their early association with chthonic rituals: circus images were considered protective or lucky, curse tablets have been found buried at the site of racetracks, and charioteers were often suspected of sorcery.[359] Chariot racing continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, but the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise.[350] The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with funeral games and sacrifices. Some of the earliest styles of gladiator fighting had ethnic designations such as "Thracian" or "Gallic".[360] The staged combats were considered munera, "services, offerings, benefactions", initially distinct from the festival games (ludi).[361] To mark the opening of the Colosseum, Titus presented 100 days of arena events, with 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day.[362] Roman fascination with gladiators is indicated by how widely they are depicted on mosaics, wall paintings, lamps, and in graffiti.[363] Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves, convicts, or free volunteers.[364] Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters, whose training was costly and time-consuming.[365] By contrast, noxii were convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training, often unarmed, and with no expectation of survival; physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate retributive justice.[183] These executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of myths, and amphitheatres were equipped with elaborate stage machinery to create special effects.[183][366] Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the "theatre of life and death"[367] difficult to understand.[368] Pliny the Younger rationalized gladiator spectacles as good for the people, "to inspire them to face honourable wounds and despise death, by exhibiting love of glory and desire for victory".[369] Some Romans such as Seneca were critical of the brutal spectacles, but found virtue in the courage and dignity of the defeated fighter[370]—an attitude that finds its fullest expression with the Christians martyred in the arena. Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a dressed-up form of human sacrifice.[371] Even martyr literature, however, offers "detailed, indeed luxuriant, descriptions of bodily suffering",[372] and became a popular genre at times indistinguishable from fiction.[373] Recreation So-called "Bikini Girls" mosaic from the Villa del Casale, Roman Sicily, 4th century The singular ludus, "play, game, sport, training", had a wide range of meanings such as "word play", "theatrical performance", "board game", "primary school", and even "gladiator training school" (as in Ludus Magnus).[374] Activities for children and young people in the Empire included hoop rolling and knucklebones (astragali or "jacks"). Girls had dolls made of wood, terracotta, and especially bone and ivory.[375] Ball games include trigon and harpastum.[376] People of all ages played board games, including latrunculi ("Raiders") and XII scripta ("Twelve Marks").[377] A game referred to as alea (dice) or tabula (the board) may have been similar to backgammon.[378] Dicing as a form of gambling was disapproved of, but was a popular pastime during the festival of the Saturnalia.[379] After adolescence, most physical training for males was of a military nature. The Campus Martius originally was an exercise field where young men learned horsemanship and warfare. Hunting was also considered an appropriate pastime. According to Plutarch, conservative Romans disapproved of Greek-style athletics that promoted a fine body for its own sake, and condemned Nero's efforts to encourage Greek-style athletic games.[380] Some women trained as gymnasts and dancers, and a rare few as female gladiators. The "Bikini Girls" mosaic shows young women engaging in routines comparable to rhythmic gymnastics.[t][382] Women were encouraged to maintain health through activities such as playing ball, swimming, walking, or reading aloud (as a breathing exercise).[383] Clothing Main article: Clothing in ancient Rome Further information: Roman hairstyles, Roman jewelry, and Cosmetics in ancient Rome Togate statue in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale d'Abruzzo In a status-conscious society like that of the Romans, clothing and personal adornment indicated the etiquette of interacting with the wearer.[384] Wearing the correct clothing reflected a society in good order.[385] There is little direct evidence of how Romans dressed in daily life, since portraiture may show the subject in clothing with symbolic value, and surviving textiles are rare.[386][387] The toga was the distinctive national garment of the male citizen, but it was heavy and impractical, worn mainly for conducting political or court business and religious rites.[388][386] It was a "vast expanse" of semi-circular white wool that could not be put on and draped correctly without assistance.[388] The drapery became more intricate and structured over time.[389] The toga praetexta, with a purple or purplish-red stripe representing inviolability, was worn by children who had not come of age, curule magistrates, and state priests. Only the emperor could wear an all-purple toga (toga picta).[390] Ordinary clothing was dark or colourful. The basic garment for all Romans, regardless of gender or wealth, was the simple sleeved tunic, with length differing by wearer.[391] The tunics of poor people and labouring slaves were made from coarse wool in natural, dull shades; finer tunics were made of lightweight wool or linen. A man of the senatorial or equestrian order wore a tunic with two purple stripes (clavi) woven vertically: the wider the stripe, the higher the wearer's status.[391] Other garments could be layered over the tunic. Common male attire also included cloaks and in some regions trousers.[392] In the 2nd century, emperors and elite men are often portrayed wearing the pallium, an originally Greek mantle; women are also portrayed in the pallium. Tertullian considered the pallium an appropriate garment both for Christians, in contrast to the toga, and for educated people.[385][386][393] Roman clothing styles changed over time.[394] In the Dominate, clothing worn by both soldiers and bureaucrats became highly decorated with geometrical patterns, stylized plant motifs, and in more elaborate examples, human or animal figures.[395] Courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes. The militarization of Roman society, and the waning of urban life, affected fashion: heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, and the toga was abandoned,[396] replaced by the pallium as a garment embodying social unity.[397] Arts Main articles: Roman art and Art collection in ancient Rome Greek art had a profound influence on Roman art.[398] Public art—including sculpture, monuments such as victory columns or triumphal arches, and the iconography on coins—is often analysed for historical or ideological significance.[399] In the private sphere, artistic objects were made for religious dedications, funerary commemoration, domestic use, and commerce.[400] The wealthy advertised their appreciation of culture through artwork and decorative arts in their homes.[401] Despite the value placed on art, even famous artists were of low social status, partly as they worked with their hands.[402] Portraiture Main article: Roman portraiture Two portraits c. 130 AD: the empress Vibia Sabina (left); and the Antinous Mondragone Portraiture, which survives mainly in sculpture, was the most copious form of imperial art. Portraits during the Augustan period utilize classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism.[403] Republican portraits were characterized by verism, but as early as the 2nd century BC, Greek heroic nudity was adopted for conquering generals.[404] Imperial portrait sculptures may model a mature head atop a youthful nude or semi-nude body with perfect musculature.[405] Clothed in the toga or military regalia, the body communicates rank or role, not individual characteristics.[406] Portraiture in painting is represented primarily by the Fayum mummy portraits, which evoke Egyptian and Roman traditions of commemorating the dead with realistic painting. Marble portrait sculpture were painted, but traces have rarely survived.[407] Sculpture and sarcophagi Main articles: Roman sculpture and Ancient Roman sarcophagi On the Ludovisi sarcophagus Examples of Roman sculpture survive abundantly, though often in damaged or fragmentary condition, including freestanding statuary in marble, bronze and terracotta, and reliefs from public buildings and monuments. Niches in amphitheatres were originally filled with statues,[408][409] as were formal gardens.[410] Temples housed cult images of deities, often by famed sculptors.[411] Elaborately carved marble and limestone sarcophagi are characteristic of the 2nd to 4th centuries.[412] Sarcophagus relief has been called the "richest single source of Roman iconography",[413] depicting mythological scenes[414] or Jewish/Christian imagery[415] as well as the deceased's life. Painting Main article: Painting in ancient Rome The Wedding of Zephyrus and Chloris (54–68 AD, Pompeian Fourth Style) within painted architectural panels from the Casa del Naviglio Initial Roman painting drew from Etruscan and Greek models and techniques. Examples of Roman paintings can be found in palaces, catacombs and villas. Much of what is known of Roman painting is from the interior decoration of private homes, particularly as preserved by the eruption of Vesuvius. In addition to decorative borders and panels with geometric or vegetative motifs, wall painting depicts scenes from mythology and theatre, landscapes and gardens, spectacles, everyday life, and erotic art. Mosaic Main article: Roman mosaic The Triumph of Neptune floor mosaic from Africa Proconsularis (present-day Tunisia)[416] Mosaics are among the most enduring of Roman decorative arts, and are found on floors and other architectural features. The most common is the tessellated mosaic, formed from uniform pieces (tesserae) of materials such as stone and glass.[417] Opus sectile is a related technique in which flat stone, usually coloured marble, is cut precisely into shapes from which geometric or figurative patterns are formed. This more difficult technique became especially popular for luxury surfaces in the 4th century (e.g. the Basilica of Junius Bassus).[418] Figurative mosaics share many themes with painting, and in some cases use almost identical compositions. Geometric patterns and mythological scenes occur throughout the Empire. In North Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, homeowners often chose scenes of life on their estates, hunting, agriculture, and local wildlife.[416] Plentiful and major examples of Roman mosaics come also from present-day Turkey (particularly the (Antioch mosaics[419]), Italy, southern France, Spain, and Portugal. Decorative arts Further information: Ancient Roman pottery and Roman glass Decorative arts for luxury consumers included fine pottery, silver and bronze vessels and implements, and glassware. Pottery manufacturing was economically important, as were the glass and metalworking industries. Imports stimulated new regional centres of production. Southern Gaul became a leading producer of the finer red-gloss pottery (terra sigillata) that was a major trade good in 1st-century Europe.[420] Glassblowing was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC, and by the 3rd century, Egypt and the Rhineland had become noted for fine glass.[421] Silver cup, from the Boscoreale Treasure (early 1st century AD) Silver cup, from the Boscoreale Treasure (early 1st century AD) Finely decorated Gallo-Roman terra sigillata bowl Finely decorated Gallo-Roman terra sigillata bowl Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, 4th century Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, 4th century Performing arts Main articles: Theatre of ancient Rome and Music of ancient Rome All-male theatrical troupe preparing for a masked performance, on a mosaic from the House of the Tragic Poet In Roman tradition, borrowed from the Greeks, literary theatre was performed by all-male troupes that used face masks with exaggerated facial expressions to portray emotion. Female roles were played by men in drag (travesti).[422] Roman literary theatre tradition is represented in Latin literature by the tragedies of Seneca, for example. More popular than literary theatre was the genre-defying mimus theatre, which featured scripted scenarios with free improvisation, risqué language and sex scenes, action sequences, and political satire, along with dance, juggling, acrobatics, tightrope walking, striptease, and dancing bears.[423] Unlike literary theatre, mimus was played without masks, and encouraged stylistic realism. Female roles were performed by women.[424] Mimus was related to pantomimus, an early form of story ballet that contained no spoken dialogue but rather a sung libretto, often mythological, either tragic or comic.[425] Trio of musicians playing an aulos, cymbala, and tympanum (mosaic from Pompeii) Although sometimes regarded as foreign, music and dance existed in Rome from earliest times.[426] Music was customary at funerals, and the tibia, a woodwind instrument, was played at sacrifices.[427] Song (carmen) was integral to almost every social occasion. Music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos.[428] Various woodwinds and "brass" instruments were played, as were stringed instruments such as the cithara, and percussion.[427] The cornu, a long tubular metal wind instrument, was used for military signals and on parade.[427] These instruments spread throughout the provinces and are widely depicted in Roman art.[429] The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis) was "one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity", and accompanied gladiator games and events in the amphitheatre.[427] Although certain dances were seen at times as non-Roman or unmanly, dancing was embedded in religious rituals of archaic Rome.[430] Ecstatic dancing was a feature of the mystery religions, particularly the cults of Cybele[431] and Isis. In the secular realm, dancing girls from Syria and Cadiz were extremely popular.[432] Like gladiators, entertainers were legally infames, technically free but little better than slaves. "Stars", however, could enjoy considerable wealth and celebrity, and mingled socially and often sexually with the elite.[433] Performers supported each other by forming guilds, and several memorials for theatre members survive.[434] Theatre and dance were often condemned by Christian polemicists in the later Empire.[426][435] Literacy, books, and education Pride in literacy was displayed through emblems of reading and writing, as in this portrait of Terentius Neo and his wife (c. 20 AD) Estimates of the average literacy rate range from 5 to over 30%.[436][437][438] The Roman obsession with documents and inscriptions indicates the value placed on the written word.[439][440][u] Laws and edicts were posted as well as read out. Illiterate Roman subjects could have a government scribe (scriba) read or write their official documents for them.[437][442] The military produced extensive written records.[443] The Babylonian Talmud declared "if all seas were ink, all reeds were pen, all skies parchment, and all men scribes, they would be unable to set down the full scope of the Roman government's concerns".[444] Numeracy was necessary for commerce.[440][445] Slaves were numerate and literate in significant numbers; some were highly educated.[446] Graffiti and low-quality inscriptions with misspellings and solecisms indicate casual literacy among non-elites.[447][v][98] The Romans had an extensive priestly archive, and inscriptions appear throughout the Empire in connection with votives dedicated by ordinary people, as well as "magic spells" (e.g. the Greek Magical Papyri).[448] Books were expensive, since each copy had to be written out on a papyrus roll (volumen) by scribes.[449] The codex—pages bound to a spine—was still a novelty in the 1st century,[450] but by the end of the 3rd century was replacing the volumen.[451] Commercial book production was established by the late Republic,[452] and by the 1st century certain neighbourhoods of Rome and Western provincial cities were known for their bookshops.[453] The quality of editing varied wildly,[454] and plagiarism or forgery were common, since there was no copyright law.[452] Reconstruction of a wax writing tablet Collectors amassed personal libraries,[455] and a fine library was part of the cultivated leisure (otium) associated with the villa lifestyle.[456] Significant collections might attract "in-house" scholars,[457] and an individual benefactor might endow a community with a library (as Pliny the Younger did in Comum).[458] Imperial libraries were open to users on a limited basis, and represented a literary canon.[459] Books considered subversive might be publicly burned,[460] and Domitian crucified copyists for reproducing works deemed treasonous.[461] Literary texts were often shared aloud at meals or with reading groups.[462] Public readings (recitationes) expanded from the 1st through the 3rd century, giving rise to "consumer literature" for entertainment.[463] Illustrated books, including erotica, were popular, but are poorly represented by extant fragments.[464] Literacy began to decline during the Crisis of the Third Century.[465] The emperor Julian banned Christians from teaching the classical curriculum,[466] but the Church Fathers and other Christians adopted Latin and Greek literature, philosophy and science in biblical interpretation.[467] As the Western Roman Empire declined, reading became rarer even for those within the Church hierarchy,[468] although it continued in the Byzantine Empire.[469] Education Main article: Education in ancient Rome A teacher with two students, as a third arrives with his loculus, a writing case[470] Traditional Roman education was moral and practical. Stories were meant to instil Roman values (mores maiorum). Parents were expected to act as role models, and working parents passed their skills to their children, who might also enter apprenticeships.[471] Young children were attended by a pedagogue, usually a Greek slave or former slave,[472] who kept the child safe, taught self-discipline and public behaviour, attended class and helped with tutoring.[473] Formal education was available only to families who could pay for it; lack of state support contributed to low literacy.[474] Primary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic might take place at home if parents hired or bought a teacher.[475] Other children attended "public" schools organized by a schoolmaster (ludimagister) paid by parents.[476] Vernae (homeborn slave children) might share in-home or public schooling.[477] Boys and girls received primary education generally from ages 7 to 12, but classes were not segregated by grade or age.[478] Most schools employed corporal punishment.[479] For the socially ambitious, education in Greek as well as Latin was necessary.[480] Schools became more numerous during the Empire, increasing educational opportunities.[480] Mosaic from Pompeii depicting the Academy of Plato At the age of 14, upperclass males made their rite of passage into adulthood, and began to learn leadership roles through mentoring from a senior family member or family friend.[481] Higher education was provided by grammatici or rhetores.[482] The grammaticus or "grammarian" taught mainly Greek and Latin literature, with history, geography, philosophy or mathematics treated as explications of the text.[483] With the rise of Augustus, contemporary Latin authors such as Virgil and Livy also became part of the curriculum.[484] The rhetor was a teacher of oratory or public speaking. The art of speaking (ars dicendi) was highly prized, and eloquentia ("speaking ability, eloquence") was considered the "glue" of civilized society.[485] Rhetoric was not so much a body of knowledge (though it required a command of the literary canon[486]) as it was a mode of expression that distinguished those who held social power.[487] The ancient model of rhetorical training—"restraint, coolness under pressure, modesty, and good humour"[488]—endured into the 18th century as a Western educational ideal.[489] In Latin, illiteratus could mean both "unable to read and write" and "lacking in cultural awareness or sophistication".[490] Higher education promoted career advancement.[491] Urban elites throughout the Empire shared a literary culture imbued with Greek educational ideals (paideia).[492] Hellenistic cities sponsored schools of higher learning to express cultural achievement.[493] Young Roman men often went abroad to study rhetoric and philosophy, mostly to Athens. The curriculum in the East was more likely to include music and physical training.[494] On the Hellenistic model, Vespasian endowed chairs of grammar, Latin and Greek rhetoric, and philosophy at Rome, and gave secondary teachers special exemptions from taxes and legal penalties.[495] In the Eastern Empire, Berytus (present-day Beirut) was unusual in offering a Latin education, and became famous for its school of Roman law.[496] The cultural movement known as the Second Sophistic (1st–3rd century AD) promoted the assimilation of Greek and Roman social, educational, and esthetic values.[497] Literate women ranged from cultured aristocrats to girls trained to be calligraphers and scribes.[498][499] The ideal woman in Augustan love poetry was educated and well-versed in the arts.[500] Education seems to have been standard for daughters of the senatorial and equestrian orders.[477] An educated wife was an asset for the socially ambitious household.[498] Literature Main article: Latin literature See also: Latin poetry Statue in Constanța, Romania (the ancient colony Tomis), commemorating Ovid's exile Literature under Augustus, along with that of the Republic, has been viewed as the "Golden Age" of Latin literature, embodying classical ideals.[501] The three most influential Classical Latin poets—Virgil, Horace, and Ovid—belong to this period. Virgil's Aeneid was a national epic in the manner of the Homeric epics of Greece. Horace perfected the use of Greek lyric metres in Latin verse. Ovid's erotic poetry was enormously popular, but ran afoul of Augustan morality, contributing to his exile. Ovid's Metamorphoses wove together Greco-Roman mythology; his versions of Greek myths became a primary source of later classical mythology, and his work was hugely influential on medieval literature.[502] The early Principate produced satirists such as Persius and Juvenal. The mid-1st through mid-2nd century has conventionally been called the "Silver Age" of Latin literature. The three leading writers—Seneca, Lucan, and Petronius—committed suicide after incurring Nero's displeasure. Epigrammatist and social observer Martial and the epic poet Statius, whose poetry collection Silvae influenced Renaissance literature,[503] wrote during the reign of Domitian. Other authors of the Silver Age included Pliny the Elder, author of the encyclopedic Natural History; his nephew, Pliny the Younger; and the historian Tacitus. The principal Latin prose author of the Augustan age is the historian Livy, whose account of Rome's founding became the most familiar version in modern-era literature. The Twelve Caesars by Suetonius is a primary source for imperial biography. Among Imperial historians who wrote in Greek are Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Josephus, and Cassius Dio. Other major Greek authors of the Empire include the biographer Plutarch, the geographer Strabo, and the rhetorician and satirist Lucian. From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, Christian authors were in active dialogue with the classical tradition. Tertullian was one of the earliest prose authors with a distinctly Christian voice. After the conversion of Constantine, Latin literature is dominated by the Christian perspective.[504] In the late 4th century, Jerome produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the Vulgate. Around that same time, Augustine wrote The City of God against the Pagans, considered "a masterpiece of Western culture".[505] In contrast to the unity of Classical Latin, the literary esthetic of late antiquity has a tessellated quality.[506] A continuing interest in the religious traditions of Rome prior to Christian dominion is found into the 5th century, with the Saturnalia of Macrobius and The Marriage of Philology and Mercury of Martianus Capella. Latin poets of late antiquity include Ausonius, Prudentius, Claudian, and Sidonius Apollinaris. Religion Main articles: Religion in ancient Rome and Roman imperial cult See also: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, Early Christianity, Religious persecution in the Roman Empire, and Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation A Roman priest, his head ritually covered with a fold of his toga, extends a patera in a gesture of libation (2nd–3rd century) The emperor Marcus Aurelius sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success to their collective piety (pietas) and good relations with the gods (pax deorum). The archaic religion believed to have come from the earliest kings of Rome was the foundation of the mos maiorum, "the way of the ancestors", central to Roman identity.[507] Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give". Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life.[508] Each home had a household shrine to offer prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities. Neighbourhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances; as many as 135 days were devoted to religious festivals and games (ludi).[509] In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion adapted to support the new regime. Augustus justified one-man rule with a vast programme of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Upon death, an emperor could be made a state divinity (divus) by vote of the Senate. The Roman imperial cult, influenced by Hellenistic ruler cult, became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity. Cultural precedent in the Eastern provinces facilitated a rapid dissemination of Imperial cult, extending as far as Najran, in present-day Saudi Arabia.[w] Rejection of the state religion became tantamount to treason. The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honoured. As the Romans extended their territories, their general policy was to promote stability among diverse peoples by absorbing local deities and cults rather than eradicating them,[x] building temples that framed local theology within Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods.[511] By the height of the Empire, numerous syncretic or reinterpreted gods were cultivated, among them cults of Cybele, Isis, Epona, and of solar gods such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue.[512] Mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice, practiced in addition to one's family rites and public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, which conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Thus, sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists. In Gaul, the power of the druids was checked, first by forbidding Roman citizens to belong to the order, and then by banning druidism altogether. However, Celtic traditions were reinterpreted within the context of Imperial theology, and a new Gallo-Roman religion coalesced; its capital at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls established precedent for Western cult as a form of Roman-provincial identity.[513] The monotheistic rigour of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and granting of special exemptions. Tertullian noted that Judaism, unlike Christianity, was considered a religio licita, "legitimate religion". The Jewish–Roman wars resulted from political as well as religious conflicts; the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD led to the sacking of the temple and the dispersal of Jewish political power (see Jewish diaspora). A 3rd-century funerary stele is among the earliest Christian inscriptions, written in both Greek and Latin. Christianity emerged in Roman Judaea as a Jewish religious sect in the 1st century and gradually spread out of Jerusalem throughout the Empire and beyond. Imperially authorized persecutions were limited and sporadic, with martyrdoms occurring most often under the authority of local officials.[514] Tacitus reports that after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, the emperor attempted to deflect blame from himself onto the Christians.[515] A major persecution occurred under the emperor Domitian[516] and a persecution in 177 took place at Lugdunum, the Gallo-Roman religious capital. A letter from Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, describes his persecution and executions of Christians.[517] The Decian persecution of 246–251 seriously threatened the Christian Church, but ultimately strengthened Christian defiance.[518] Diocletian undertook the most severe persecution of Christians, from 303 to 311.[15] From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers condemned the diverse religions practiced throughout the Empire as "pagan".[519] In the early 4th century, Constantine I became the first emperor to convert to Christianity. He supported the Church financially and made laws that favored it, but the new religion was already successful, having moved from less than 50,000 to over a million adherents between 150 and 250.[520] Constantine and his successors banned public sacrifice while tolerating other traditional practices. Constantine never engaged in a purge,[521] there were no "pagan martyrs" during his reign,[522] and people who had not converted to Christianity remained in important positions at court.[521]: 302 Julian attempted to revive traditional public sacrifice and Hellenistic religion, but met Christian resistance and lack of popular support.[523] The Pantheon in Rome, a Roman temple originally built under Augustus, later converted into a Catholic church in the 7th century[524] Christians of the 4th century believed the conversion of Constantine showed that Christianity had triumphed over paganism (in Heaven) and little further action besides such rhetoric was necessary.[525] Thus, their focus was heresy.[526][527] According to Peter Brown, "In most areas, polytheists were not molested, and apart from a few ugly incidents of local violence, Jewish communities also enjoyed a century of stable, even privileged, existence".[527]: 641–643 [528] There were anti-pagan laws, but they were not generally enforced; through the 6th century, centers of paganism existed in Athens, Gaza, Alexandria, and elsewhere.[529] According to recent Jewish scholarship, toleration of the Jews was maintained under Christian emperors.[530] This did not extend to heretics:[530] Theodosius I made multiple laws and acted against alternate forms of Christianity,[531] and heretics were persecuted and killed by both the government and the church throughout Late Antiquity. Non-Christians were not persecuted until the 6th century. Rome's original religious hierarchy and ritual influenced Christian forms,[532][533] and many pre-Christian practices survived in Christian festivals and local traditions. Legacy Main article: Legacy of the Roman Empire The Virginia State Capitol (left), completed in 1788, was modelled after the Maison Carrée (right), in Nîmes, France, a Gallo-Roman temple built around 16 BC under Augustus. Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire's successor. The Holy Roman Empire was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Roman emperor. The Russian Tsardom, as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire's Orthodox Christian tradition, counted itself the Third Rome (Constantinople having been the second), in accordance with the concept of translatio imperii.[534] The last Eastern Roman titular, Andreas Palaiologos, sold the title of Emperor of Constantinople to Charles VIII of France; upon Charles' death, Palaiologos reclaimed the title and on his death granted it to Ferdinand and Isabella and their successors, who never used it. When the Ottomans, who based their state on the Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire.[535] He even launched an invasion of Otranto with the purpose of re-uniting the Empire, which was aborted by his death. In the medieval West, "Roman" came to mean the church and the Catholic Pope. The Greek form Romaioi remained attached to the Greek-speaking Christian population of the Byzantine Empire and is still used by Greeks.[536] The Roman Empire's control of the Italian Peninsula influenced Italian nationalism and the unification of Italy (Risorgimento) in 1861.[537] In the United States, the founders were educated in the classical tradition,[538] and used classical models for landmarks in Washington, D.C..[539][540][541][542] The founders saw Athenian democracy and Roman republicanism as models for the mixed constitution, but regarded the emperor as a figure of tyranny.[543] See also Ancient Rome portalHistory portalmapEurope portal Outline of ancient Rome List of political systems in France List of Roman dynasties Daqin ("Great Qin"), the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire; see also Sino-Roman relations Imperial Italy Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty Gallo-Roman site of Sanxay Notes Modern scholars often date the end of the "classical" or "unified" Roman Empire in AD 395.[1] This is a modern convention, as the Empire continued to be seen as a single state even after the supposed "split" of 395, which was in fact one of many splits since 286.[2] Fig. 1. Regions east of the Euphrates were held only in the years 116–117. In 286, Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into two administrative units–East and West–an arrangement that periodically returned until the two halves were permanently divided in 395.[4] Although the halves were independent in practice, the Romans continued to consider the Roman Empire to be a single undivided state with two co-equal emperors until the fall of the western half in 476/480.[4] Although emperors at times governed from other cities (notably Mediolanum and Ravenna in the West and Nicomedia in the East), Rome remained the de jure capital of the entire Roman Empire. In 330, Emperor Constantine I made Constantinople a second and new capital of the empire ("Second Rome" or "New Rome").[5][6][7][8][9][10] For a time, mostly over the course of the later decades of the fourth century, Rome continued to hold greater symbolic status on account of its greater antiquity as imperial capital.[11] From at least 361 onwards, senators belonging to the new senate in Constantinople enjoyed the same status and privileges as senators of the Roman Senate, to which the new senate was largely identical.[12] By 450, Constantinople was much grander in size and adornment than Rome and unquestionably senior in status.[13] In 1204, the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople and established the Latin Empire. The city remained under foreign rule until 1261, when it was captured by the Empire of Nicaea (a Byzantine/Roman successor state). Nicaea is usually considered the "legitimate" continuation of the Roman Empire during the "interregnum" 1204–1261 (over its rivals in Trebizond and Thessalonica) since it managed to retake Constantinople.[14] Whether there was an interregnum at all is debatable given that the crusaders envisioned the Latin Empire to be the same empire as its predecessor (and not a new state).[15] Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces. The Ottomans sometimes called their state the "Empire of Rûm" (Ottoman Turkish: دولت علنإه روم, lit. 'Exalted State of Rome'). In this sense, it could be argued that a "Roman" Empire survived until the early 20th century.[20] Augustus avoided any association with the ancient kings of Rome. Augustus had replaced his first name with Imperator, a title regularly used by Julius Caesar, thus becoming Imperator Caesar Augustus, which further linked the title with his position. Imperator did not acquire the meaning of "ruler" until the late 1st century.[28] Both Caesar and Augustus evolved into formal titles, the former denoting the heir and the latter the monarch. In some languages, Caesar became the origin of the word "emperor", such as in German (Kaiser) and some Slavic languages (Tsar). Prudentius (348–413) in particular Christianizes the theme in his poetry.[59] St. Augustine, however, distinguished between the secular and eternal "Rome" in The City of God. See also Fears, J. Rufus (1981), "The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, vol. II, p. 136, on how Classical Roman ideology influenced Christian Imperial doctrine, Bang, Peter Fibiger (2011), "The King of Kings: Universal Hegemony, Imperial Power, and a New Comparative History of Rome", The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, John Wiley & Sons and the Greek concept of globalism (oikouménē). It has been called a state of bilingualism but that's only true of the educated and so Bruno Rochette suggests it's more appropriate as a diglossia but concedes this still does not adequately explain it, as Greek was "high" against Latins "Super-high".[72] Latin experienced a period of spreading from the second century BCE, and especially in the western provinces, but not as much in the eastern provinces.[73] In the east, Greek was always the dominant language, a left over influence from the Hellenistic period that predates the Empire.[74][75] The civis ("citizen") stands in explicit contrast to a peregrina, a foreign or non-Roman woman[122] In the form of legal marriage called conubium, the father's legal status determined the child's, but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens. A soldier, for instance, was banned from marrying while in service, but if he formed a long-term union with a local woman while stationed in the provinces, he could marry her legally after he was discharged, and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens—in effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship. The ban was in place from the time of Augustus until it was rescinded by Septimius Severus in 197 AD.[123] The others are ancient Athens, and in the modern era Brazil, the Caribbean, and the United States That senator was Tiberius Claudius Gordianus[166] The relation of the equestrian order to the "public horse" and Roman cavalry parades and demonstrations (such as the Lusus Troiae) is complex, but those who participated in the latter seem, for instance, to have been the equites who were accorded the high-status (and quite limited) seating at the theatre by the Lex Roscia theatralis. Senators could not possess the "public horse".[168] Ancient Gades, in Roman Spain (now Cádiz), and Patavium, in the Celtic north of Italy (now Padua), were atypically wealthy cities, and having 500 equestrians in one city was unusual.[170] This practice was established in the Republic; see for instance the case of Contrebian water rights heard by G. Valerius Flaccus as governor of Hispania in the 90s–80s BC. This was the vicesima libertatis, "the twentieth for freedom"[227] The college of centonarii is an elusive topic in scholarship, since they are also widely attested as urban firefighters.[282][283] Historian Jinyu Liu sees them as "primarily tradesmen and/or manufacturers engaged in the production and distribution of low- or medium-quality woolen textiles and clothing, including felt and its products".[283] Julius Caesar first applied the Latin word oppidum to this type of settlement, and even called Avaricum (Bourges, France), a center of the Bituriges, an urbs, "city". Archaeology indicates that oppida were centers of religion, trade (including import/export), and industrial production, walled for the purposes of defence, but they may not have been inhabited by concentrated populations year-round.[299] Such as the Consualia and the October Horse sacrifice.[344] Scholars are divided in their relative emphasis on the athletic and dance elements of these exercises: Lee, H. (1984). "Athletics and the Bikini Girls from Piazza Armerina". Stadion. 10: 45–75. sees them as gymnasts, while Torelli thinks they are dancers at the games.[381] Clifford Ando posed the question as "what good would 'posted edicts' do in a world of low literacy?'.[441] Political slogans and obscenities are widely preserved as graffiti in Pompeii: Antonio Varone, Erotica Pompeiana: Love Inscriptions on the Walls of Pompeii ("L'Erma" di Bretschneider, 2002). Soldiers sometimes inscribed sling bullets with aggressive messages: Phang, "Military Documents, Languages, and Literacy," p. 300. The caesareum at Najaran was possibly known later as the "Kaaba of Najran"[510] "This mentality," notes John T. Koch, "lay at the core of the genius of cultural assimilation which made the Roman Empire possible"; entry on "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974. References Citations Morley, Neville (2010). The Roman Empire: Roots of Imperialism. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-2870-6.; Diamond, Jared (2011). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (Revised ed.). Penguin. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-1015-0200-6. Sandberg, Kaj (2008). "The So-Called Division of the Roman Empire in AD 395: Notes on a Persistent Theme in Modern Historiography". Arctos. 42: 199–213. ISSN 0570-734X. Bennett (1997). Ancient Rome: The Definitive Visual History. Dorling Kindersley. 2023. p. 276. ISBN 978-0-2416-3575-9. 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Shane (2013). Politics and Tradition Between Rome, Ravenna and Constantinople: A Study of Cassiodorus and the Variae, 527–554. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-1070-2840-1. Archived from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023. "As a new capital, Constantinople provided a stage for imperial prestige that did not depend on association with the traditions of the senatorial establishment at Rome" Coffler, Gail H. (2004). Melville's Allusions to Religion: A Comprehensive Index and Glossary: A Comprehensive Index and Glossary. ABC-CLIO. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-3130-7270-3. Archived from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023. "It became Constantinople, capital of the entire Roman Empire" Maxwell, Kathleen (2016). "Art and Diplomacy in Late Thirteenth-century Constantinople: Paris 54 and the Union of Churches". Between Constantinople and Rome: An Illuminated Byzantine Gospel Book (Paris gr. 54) and the Union of Churches. Routledge. 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"Ancient Literacy and the Written Word in Roman Religion". Literacy in the Roman World. University of Michigan Press. pp. 59ff.; Dickie, Matthew (2001). Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. pp. 94–95, 181–182, 196.; Potter (2009), p. 555; Harris (1989), pp. 29, 218–219 Johnson (2010), pp. 17–18. Johnson (2010), p. 17, citing Martial, Epigrams, 1.2, 14.184–92; Cavallo & Chartier (1999), pp. 83–84 Johnson (2010), pp. 17–18; Cavallo & Chartier (1999), pp. 84–85 Marshall (1976), p. 253. Cavallo & Chartier (1999), p. 71; Marshall (1976), p. 253, citing on the book trade in the provinces Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 9.11.2; Martial Epigrams 7.88; Horace, Carmina 2.20.13f. and Ars Poetica 345; Ovid, Tristia 4.9.21 and 4.10.128; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 35.2.11; Sidonius, Epistulae 9.7.1. Marshall (1976), p. 253; Strabo 13.1.54, 50.13.419; Martial. Epigrams. p. 2.8.; Lucian, Adversus Indoctum 1 Marshall (1976), pp. 252–264. Cavallo & Chartier (1999), pp. 67–68. 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in ItalyStates and territories established in the 1st century BCStates and territories disestablished in the 5th centuryStates and territories disestablished in 1453476 disestablishments470s disestablishments5th-century disestablishments in ItalyHistory of the MediterraneanFormer monarchies of EuropeWestern cultureHistorical transcontinental empiresFormer empires This page was last edited on 28 Decembe Top 100 Greatest Movies of All Time (The Ultimate List) by ChrisWalczyk55 • Created 12 years ago • Modified 7 years ago The movies on this list are ranked according to their success (awards & nominations), their popularity, and their cinematic greatness from a directing/writing perspective. To me, accuracy when making a Top 10/Top 100 all time list is extremely important. My lists are not based on my own personal favorites; they are based on the true greatness and/or success of the person, place or thing being ranked. In other words, a film's commercial success (Oscars & BAFTA Awards), and greatness in direction, screenwriting and production, is how I ranked the films on this list. If you guys would like to view my other Top 10/Top 100 lists, feel free to check out my YouTube page and/or my IMDb page at *ChrisWalczyk55*. Thanks guys and don't forget to LIKE & comment! :) List activity 25M views 25K this week 100 titles Sort by Marlon Brando in The Godfather (1972) 1. The Godfather 1972 2h 55m 15 9.2 (2.1M) 100 Metascore The aging patriarch of an organized crime dynasty transfers control of his clandestine empire to his reluctant son. DirectorFrancis Ford CoppolaStarsMarlon BrandoAl PacinoJames Caan Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 4 Golden Globes: 6 Golden Globe Nominations: 8 Tim Robbins in The Shawshank Redemption (1994) 2. The Shawshank Redemption 1994 2h 22m 15 9.3 (3M) 82 Metascore A banker convicted of uxoricide forms a friendship over a quarter century with a hardened convict, while maintaining his innocence and trying to remain hopeful through simple compassion. DirectorFrank DarabontStarsTim RobbinsMorgan FreemanBob Gunton Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 2 Oliwia Dabrowska in Schindler's List (1993) 3. Schindler's List 1993 3h 15m 15 9.0 (1.5M) 95 Metascore In German-occupied Poland during World War II, industrialist Oskar Schindler gradually becomes concerned for his Jewish workforce after witnessing their persecution by the Nazis. DirectorSteven SpielbergStarsLiam NeesonRalph FiennesBen Kingsley Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 7 Oscar Nominations: 12 BAFTA Awards: 6 BAFTA Nominations: 12 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 Robert De Niro in Raging Bull (1980) 4. Raging Bull 1980 2h 9m X 8.1 (390K) 90 Metascore The life of boxer Jake LaMotta, whose violence and temper that led him to the top in the ring destroyed his life outside of it. DirectorMartin ScorseseStarsRobert De NiroCathy MoriartyJoe Pesci Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 4 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 Ingrid Bergman, Humphrey Bogart, Peter Lorre, Claude Rains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid, and Conrad Veidt in Casablanca (1942) 5. Casablanca 1942 1h 42m U 8.5 (623K) 100 Metascore A cynical expatriate American cafe owner struggles to decide whether or not to help his former lover and her fugitive husband escape the Nazis in French Morocco. DirectorMichael CurtizStarsHumphrey BogartIngrid BergmanPaul Henreid Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Orson Welles, Dorothy Comingore, and Ruth Warrick in Citizen Kane (1941) 6. Citizen Kane 1941 1h 59m A 8.3 (476K) 100 Metascore Following the death of publishing tycoon Charles Foster Kane, reporters scramble to uncover the meaning of his final utterance: 'Rosebud.' DirectorOrson WellesStarsOrson WellesJoseph CottenDorothy Comingore Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 9 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh in Gone with the Wind (1939) 7. Gone with the Wind 1939 3h 58m PG 8.2 (342K) 97 Metascore A sheltered and manipulative Southern belle and a roguish profiteer face off in a turbulent romance as the society around them crumbles with the end of slavery and is rebuilt during the Civil War and Reconstruction periods. DirectorVictor FlemingGeorge CukorSam WoodStarsClark GableVivien LeighThomas Mitchell ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 8 Oscar Nominations: 13 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Judy Garland, Ray Bolger, Jack Haley, Bert Lahr, and Frank Morgan in The Wizard of Oz (1939) 8. The Wizard of Oz 1939 1h 42m A 8.1 (443K) 92 Metascore Young Dorothy Gale and her dog Toto are swept away by a tornado from their Kansas farm to the magical Land of Oz and embark on a quest with three new friends to see the Wizard, who can return her to her home and fulfill the others' wishes. DirectorVictor FlemingKing VidorStarsJudy GarlandFrank MorganRay Bolger ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 6 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Jack Nicholson in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) 9. One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest 1975 2h 13m X 8.7 (1.1M) 84 Metascore In the Fall of 1963, a Korean War veteran and criminal pleads insanity and is admitted to a mental institution, where he rallies up the scared patients against the tyrannical nurse. DirectorMilos FormanStarsJack NicholsonLouise FletcherMichael Berryman ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 9 BAFTA Awards: 6 BAFTA Nominations: 9 Golden Globes: 6 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 Alec Guinness, Anthony Quinn, Peter O'Toole, José Ferrer, and Jack Hawkins in Lawrence of Arabia (1962) 10. Lawrence of Arabia 1962 3h 47m PG 8.3 (324K) 100 Metascore The story of T.E. Lawrence, the English officer who successfully united and led the diverse, often warring, Arab tribes during World War I in order to fight the Turks. DirectorDavid LeanStarsPeter O'TooleAlec GuinnessAnthony Quinn Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 7 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 4 BAFTA Nominations: 5 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 Vertigo (1958) 11. Vertigo 1958 2h 8m PG 8.3 (439K) 100 Metascore A former San Francisco police detective juggles wrestling with his personal demons and becoming obsessed with the hauntingly beautiful woman he has been hired to trail, who may be deeply disturbed. DirectorAlfred HitchcockStarsJames StewartKim NovakBarbara Bel Geddes Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 2 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Anthony Perkins, John Gavin, Janet Leigh, and Heather Dawn May in Psycho (1960) 12. Psycho 1960 1h 49m 15 8.5 (742K) 97 Metascore A secretary on the run for embezzlement takes refuge at a secluded California motel owned by a repressed man and his overbearing mother. DirectorAlfred HitchcockStarsAnthony PerkinsJanet LeighVera Miles ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 1 Al Pacino in The Godfather Part II (1974) 13. The Godfather Part II 1974 3h 22m X 9.0 (1.4M) 90 Metascore The early life and career of Vito Corleone in 1920s New York City is portrayed, while his son, Michael, expands and tightens his grip on the family crime syndicate. DirectorFrancis Ford CoppolaStarsAl PacinoRobert De NiroRobert Duvall Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 6 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 3 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 Marlon Brando in On the Waterfront (1954) 14. On the Waterfront 1954 1h 48m PG 8.1 (170K) 91 Metascore An ex-prize fighter turned New Jersey longshoreman struggles to stand up to his corrupt union bosses, including his older brother, as he starts to connect with the grieving sister of one of the syndicate's victims. DirectorElia KazanStarsMarlon BrandoKarl MaldenLee J. Cobb ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 8 Oscar Nominations: 12 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 3 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 William Holden, Nancy Olson, and Gloria Swanson in Sunset Blvd. (1950) 15. Sunset Blvd. 1950 1h 50m PG 8.4 (245K) 94 Metascore A screenwriter develops a dangerous relationship with a faded film star determined to make a triumphant return. DirectorBilly WilderStarsWilliam HoldenGloria SwansonErich von Stroheim ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 Tom Hanks in Forrest Gump (1994) 16. Forrest Gump 1994 2h 22m 12 8.8 (2.3M) 82 Metascore The history of the United States from the 1950s to the '70s unfolds from the perspective of an Alabama man with an IQ of 75, who yearns to be reunited with his childhood sweetheart. DirectorRobert ZemeckisStarsTom HanksRobin WrightGary Sinise Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 6 Oscar Nominations: 13 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 7 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 Julie Andrews, Christopher Plummer, Charmian Carr, Angela Cartwright, Duane Chase, Nicholas Hammond, Kym Karath, Heather Menzies-Urich, and Debbie Turner in The Sound of Music (1965) 17. The Sound of Music 1965 2h 52m U 8.1 (271K) 63 Metascore A young novice is sent by her convent in 1930s Austria to become a governess to the seven children of a widowed naval officer. DirectorRobert WiseStarsJulie AndrewsChristopher PlummerEleanor Parker ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 2 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Henry Fonda, Martin Balsam, Jack Klugman, Lee J. Cobb, Ed Begley, Edward Binns, John Fiedler, E.G. Marshall, Joseph Sweeney, George Voskovec, Jack Warden, and Robert Webber in 12 Angry Men (1957) 18. 12 Angry Men 1957 1h 36m U 9.0 (903K) 97 Metascore The jury in a New York City murder trial is frustrated by a single member whose skeptical caution forces them to more carefully consider the evidence before jumping to a hasty verdict. DirectorSidney LumetStarsHenry FondaLee J. CobbMartin Balsam ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 3 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 "West Side Story" (Saul Bass Poster) 1961 19. West Side Story 1961 2h 33m PG 7.6 (123K) 86 Metascore Two youngsters from rival New York City gangs fall in love, but tensions between their respective friends build toward tragedy. DirectorJerome RobbinsRobert WiseStarsNatalie WoodGeorge ChakirisRichard Beymer ***** Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 10 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Anthony Daniels, Carrie Fisher, Mark Hamill, James Earl Jones, David Prowse, and Kenny Baker in Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope (1977) 20. Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope 1977 2h 1m U 8.6 (1.5M) 90 Metascore Luke Skywalker joins forces with a Jedi Knight, a cocky pilot, a Wookiee and two droids to save the galaxy from the Empire's world-destroying battle station, while also attempting to rescue Princess Leia from the mysterious Darth Vader. DirectorGeorge LucasStarsMark HamillHarrison FordCarrie Fisher Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 6 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 5 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) 21. 2001: A Space Odyssey 1968 2h 29m U 8.3 (742K) 84 Metascore When a mysterious artifact is uncovered on the Moon, a spacecraft manned by two humans and one supercomputer is sent to Jupiter to find its origins. DirectorStanley KubrickStarsKeir DulleaGary LockwoodWilliam Sylvester Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 3 BAFTA Nominations: 5 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Henry Thomas and Pat Welsh in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) 22. E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial 1982 1h 55m PG 7.9 (449K) 92 Metascore A troubled child summons the courage to help a friendly alien escape from Earth and return to his home planet. DirectorSteven SpielbergStarsHenry ThomasDrew BarrymorePeter Coyote ***** Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 9 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 12 Golden Globes: 2 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Jodie Foster in The Silence of the Lambs (1991) 23. The Silence of the Lambs 1991 1h 58m 18 8.6 (1.6M) 86 Metascore A young F.B.I. cadet must receive the help of an incarcerated and manipulative cannibal killer to help catch another serial killer, a madman who skins his victims. DirectorJonathan DemmeStarsJodie FosterAnthony HopkinsScott Glenn Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 9 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Jack Nicholson and Faye Dunaway in Chinatown (1974) 24. Chinatown 1974 2h 10m X 8.1 (360K) 92 Metascore A private detective hired to expose an adulterer in 1930s Los Angeles finds himself caught up in a web of deceit, corruption, and murder. DirectorRoman PolanskiStarsJack NicholsonFaye DunawayJohn Huston ***** Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: 3 BAFTA Nominations: 10 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 Alec Guinness, William Holden, Jack Hawkins, Sessue Hayakawa, Geoffrey Horne, and Ann Sears in The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) 25. The Bridge on the River Kwai 1957 2h 41m PG 8.1 (239K) 88 Metascore British POWs are forced to build a railway bridge across the river Kwai for their Japanese captors in occupied Burma, not knowing that the allied forces are planning a daring commando raid through the jungle to destroy it. DirectorDavid LeanStarsWilliam HoldenAlec GuinnessJack Hawkins Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 7 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 4 BAFTA Nominations: 4 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Gene Kelly, Debbie Reynolds, and Donald O'Connor in Singin' in the Rain (1952) 26. Singin' in the Rain 1952 1h 43m U 8.3 (269K) 99 Metascore A silent film star falls for a chorus girl just as he and his delusionally jealous screen partner are trying to make the difficult transition to talking pictures in 1920s Hollywood. DirectorStanley DonenGene KellyStarsGene KellyDonald O'ConnorDebbie Reynolds ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 2 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 2 James Stewart and Donna Reed in It's a Wonderful Life (1946) 27. It's a Wonderful Life 1946 2h 10m U 8.6 (520K) 89 Metascore An angel is sent from Heaven to help a desperately frustrated businessman by showing him what life would have been like if he had never existed. DirectorFrank CapraStarsJames StewartDonna ReedLionel Barrymore ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 5 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 1 Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964) 28. Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb 1964 1h 35m PG 8.3 (532K) 97 Metascore An unhinged American general orders a bombing attack on the Soviet Union, triggering a path to nuclear holocaust that a war room full of politicians and generals frantically tries to stop. DirectorStanley KubrickStarsPeter SellersGeorge C. ScottSterling Hayden Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 3 BAFTA Nominations: 6 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Marilyn Monroe, Tony Curtis, and Jack Lemmon in Some Like It Hot (1959) 29. Some Like It Hot 1959 2h 1m A 8.2 (291K) 98 Metascore After two male musicians witness a mob hit, they flee the state in an all-female band disguised as women, but further complications set in. DirectorBilly WilderStarsMarilyn MonroeTony CurtisJack Lemmon Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 6 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 3 Ben-Hur (1959) 30. Ben-Hur 1959 3h 32m PG 8.1 (260K) 90 Metascore A Jewish prince is betrayed and sent into slavery by a Roman friend in 1st-century Jerusalem, but it's not long before he regains his freedom and comes back for revenge. DirectorWilliam WylerStarsCharlton HestonJack HawkinsStephen Boyd Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 11 Oscar Nominations: 12 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Marlon Brando and Martin Sheen in Apocalypse Now (1979) 31. Apocalypse Now 1979 2h 27m X 8.4 (731K) 94 Metascore A U.S. Army officer serving in Vietnam is tasked with assassinating a renegade Special Forces Colonel who sees himself as a god. DirectorFrancis Ford CoppolaStarsMartin SheenMarlon BrandoRobert Duvall Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 8 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Amadeus (1984) 32. Amadeus 1984 2h 40m PG 8.4 (442K) 87 Metascore The life, success and troubles of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, as told by Antonio Salieri, the contemporaneous composer who was deeply jealous of Mozart's talent and claimed to have murdered him. DirectorMilos FormanStarsF. Murray AbrahamTom HulceElizabeth Berridge ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 8 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: 4 BAFTA Nominations: 9 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 Liv Tyler, Sean Astin, Elijah Wood, Viggo Mortensen, Ian McKellen, and Andy Serkis in The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) 33. The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King 2003 3h 21m 12A 9.0 (2M) 94 Metascore Gandalf and Aragorn lead the World of Men against Sauron's army to draw his gaze from Frodo and Sam as they approach Mount Doom with the One Ring. DirectorPeter JacksonStarsElijah WoodViggo MortensenIan McKellen Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 11 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: 4 BAFTA Nominations: 10 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Russell Crowe in Gladiator (2000) 34. Gladiator 2000 2h 35m 15 8.5 (1.7M) 67 Metascore A former Roman General sets out to exact vengeance against the corrupt emperor who murdered his family and sent him into slavery. DirectorRidley ScottStarsRussell CroweJoaquin PhoenixConnie Nielsen ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 4.7 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 12 BAFTA Awards: 4 BAFTA Nominations: 12 Golden Globes: 2 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Leonardo DiCaprio, Kate Winslet, Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, and Frances Fisher in Titanic (1997) 35. Titanic 1997 3h 14m 12 7.9 (1.3M) 75 Metascore A seventeen-year-old aristocrat falls in love with a kind but poor artist aboard the luxurious, ill-fated R.M.S. Titanic. DirectorJames CameronStarsLeonardo DiCaprioKate WinsletBilly Zane ***** Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.5 Stars Oscars: 11 Oscar Nominations: 14 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 8 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 8 Deborah Kerr, Burt Lancaster, Frank Sinatra, Ernest Borgnine, Montgomery Clift, and Donna Reed in From Here to Eternity (1953) 36. From Here to Eternity 1953 1h 58m PG 7.6 (52K) 85 Metascore At a U.S. Army base in 1941 Hawaii, a pugilistic private is cruelly punished for refusing to join his unit's boxing team. Meanwhile, his commanding officer's wife and top NCO are indulging in a torrid love affair. DirectorFred ZinnemannStarsBurt LancasterMontgomery CliftDeborah Kerr Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 8 Oscar Nominations: 13 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 2 Golden Globe Nominations: 2 Tom Hanks, Matt Damon, Tom Sizemore, and Edward Burns in Saving Private Ryan (1998) 37. Saving Private Ryan 1998 2h 49m 15 8.6 (1.5M) 91 Metascore Following the Normandy Landings, a group of U.S. soldiers go behind enemy lines to retrieve a paratrooper whose brothers have been killed in action. DirectorSteven SpielbergStarsTom HanksMatt DamonTom Sizemore Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 8 Golden Globes: 2 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Clint Eastwood, Morgan Freeman, Gene Hackman, and Richard Harris in Unforgiven (1992) 38. Unforgiven 1992 2h 10m 15 8.2 (447K) 85 Metascore Retired Old West gunslinger Will Munny reluctantly takes on one last job to avenge an injustice with the help of his old partner and a newer outlaw known simply as The Schofield Kid. DirectorClint EastwoodStarsClint EastwoodGene HackmanMorgan Freeman Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 9 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 6 Golden Globes: 2 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Harrison Ford, Karen Allen, Paul Freeman, Wolf Kahler, Ronald Lacey, and Terry Richards in Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) 39. Raiders of the Lost Ark 1981 1h 55m PG 8.4 (1.1M) 86 Metascore In 1936, archaeologists and adventurers of the U.S. government hired Indiana Jones to find the Ark of the Covenant before the Nazis could obtain its extraordinary powers. DirectorSteven SpielbergStarsHarrison FordKaren AllenPaul Freeman Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 6 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 1 Sylvester Stallone and Talia Shire in Rocky (1976) 40. Rocky 1976 2h PG 8.1 (649K) 70 Metascore A small-time Philadelphia boxer gets a supremely rare chance to fight the world heavyweight champion in a bout in which he strives to go the distance for his self-respect. DirectorJohn G. AvildsenStarsSylvester StalloneTalia ShireBurt Young Actors: 4.6 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.6 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 5 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 Marlon Brando and Vivien Leigh in A Streetcar Named Desire (1951) 41. A Streetcar Named Desire 1951 2h 2m X 7.9 (116K) 97 Metascore Disturbed Blanche DuBois moves in with her sister in New Orleans and is tormented by her brutish brother-in-law while her reality crumbles around her. DirectorElia KazanStarsVivien LeighMarlon BrandoKim Hunter Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 12 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 3 Cary Grant, Katharine Hepburn, and James Stewart in The Philadelphia Story (1940) 42. The Philadelphia Story 1940 1h 52m A 7.8 (75K) 96 Metascore After a rich woman's ex-husband and a tabloid-type reporter turn up just before her planned remarriage, she begins to learn the truth about herself. DirectorGeorge CukorStarsCary GrantKatharine HepburnJames Stewart Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 6 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Gregory Peck, Mary Badham, and Phillip Alford in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) 43. To Kill a Mockingbird 1962 2h 9m PG 8.3 (340K) 88 Metascore A widowed lawyer in Depression-era Alabama defends a black man against a false rape charge while teaching his young children about the sad reality of prejudice. DirectorRobert MulliganStarsGregory PeckJohn MegnaFrank Overton Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron in An American in Paris (1951) 44. An American in Paris 1951 1h 54m U 7.1 (38K) 83 Metascore Three friends struggle to find work in Paris. Things become more complicated when two of them fall in love with the same woman. DirectorVincente MinnelliStarsGene KellyLeslie CaronOscar Levant Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 6 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 3 Dana Andrews, Myrna Loy, Fredric March, Virginia Mayo, and Teresa Wright in The Best Years of Our Lives (1946) 45. The Best Years of Our Lives 1946 2h 50m U 8.1 (73K) 93 Metascore Three World War II veterans, two of them traumatized or disabled, return home to the American midwest to discover that they and their families have been irreparably changed. DirectorWilliam WylerStarsMyrna LoyDana AndrewsFredric March Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 7 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 1 My Fair Lady (1964) 46. My Fair Lady 1964 2h 50m U 7.7 (104K) 95 Metascore In 1910s London, snobbish phonetics professor Henry Higgins agrees to a wager that he can make a crude flower girl, Eliza Doolittle, presentable in high society. DirectorGeorge CukorStarsAudrey HepburnRex HarrisonStanley Holloway Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 8 Oscar Nominations: 12 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Malcolm McDowell in A Clockwork Orange (1971) 47. A Clockwork Orange 1971 2h 16m X 8.2 (901K) 77 Metascore Alex DeLarge and his droogs barbarize a decaying near-future. DirectorStanley KubrickStarsMalcolm McDowellPatrick MageeMichael Bates Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 7 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 3 Geraldine Chaplin, Julie Christie, Omar Sharif, and Rod Steiger in Doctor Zhivago (1965) 48. Doctor Zhivago 1965 3h 13m PG 7.9 (84K) 69 Metascore The life of a Russian physician and poet who, although married to another, falls in love with a political activist's wife and experiences hardship during World War I and then the October Revolution. DirectorDavid LeanStarsOmar SharifJulie ChristieGeraldine Chaplin Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 3 Golden Globes: 5 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 John Wayne, Natalie Wood, Ward Bond, Jeffrey Hunter, and Vera Miles in The Searchers (1956) 49. The Searchers 1956 1h 59m PG 7.8 (99K) 94 Metascore An American Civil War veteran embarks on a years-long journey to rescue his niece from the Comanches after the rest of his brother's family is massacred in a raid on their Texas farm. DirectorJohn FordStarsJohn WayneJeffrey HunterVera Miles ***** Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 0 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Award Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Susan Backlinie and Bruce in Jaws (1975) 50. Jaws 1975 2h 4m PG 8.1 (683K) 87 Metascore When a massive killer shark unleashes chaos on a beach community off Long Island, it's up to a local sheriff, a marine biologist, and an old seafarer to hunt the beast down. DirectorSteven SpielbergStarsRoy ScheiderRobert ShawRichard Dreyfuss Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 6 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Patton (1970) 51. Patton 1970 2h 52m PG 7.9 (110K) 86 Metascore The World War II phase of the career of controversial American general George S. Patton. DirectorFranklin J. SchaffnerStarsGeorge C. ScottKarl MaldenStephen Young ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 7 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 3 Paul Newman, Robert Redford, and Katharine Ross in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969) 52. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid 1969 1h 50m PG 8.0 (230K) 66 Metascore In 1890s Wyoming, Butch Cassidy and The Sundance Kid lead a band of outlaws. When a train robbery goes wrong, they find themselves on the run with a posse hard on their heels.. DirectorGeorge Roy HillStarsPaul NewmanRobert RedfordKatharine Ross ***** Actors: 4.6 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: 8 BAFTA Nominations: 9 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Humphrey Bogart, Tim Holt, and Walter Huston in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) 53. The Treasure of the Sierra Madre 1948 2h 6m PG 8.2 (136K) 98 Metascore Two down-on-their-luck Americans searching for work in 1920s Mexico convince an old prospector to help them mine for gold in the Sierra Madre Mountains. DirectorJohn HustonStarsHumphrey BogartWalter HustonTim Holt Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 3 The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966) 54. The Good, the Bad and the Ugly 1966 2h 28m 18 8.8 (838K) 90 Metascore A bounty-hunting scam joins two men in an uneasy alliance against a third in a race to find a fortune in gold buried in a remote cemetery. DirectorSergio LeoneStarsClint EastwoodEli WallachLee Van Cleef Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 0 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Award Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Jack Lemmon and Shirley MacLaine in The Apartment (1960) 55. The Apartment 1960 2h 5m PG 8.3 (204K) 94 Metascore A Manhattan insurance clerk tries to rise in his company by letting its executives use his apartment for trysts, but office politics and his own romantic hopes complicate matters. DirectorBilly WilderStarsJack LemmonShirley MacLaineFred MacMurray Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 3 BAFTA Nominations: 3 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Charlie Sheen, Willem Dafoe, John C. McGinley, and Kevin Eshelman in Platoon (1986) 56. Platoon 1986 2h 15 8.1 (449K) 92 Metascore Chris Taylor, a neophyte recruit in Vietnam, finds himself caught in a battle of wills between two sergeants, one good and the other evil. A shrewd examination of the brutality of war and the duality of man in conflict. DirectorOliver StoneStarsCharlie SheenTom BerengerWillem Dafoe ***** Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 3 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Gary Cooper, Lloyd Bridges, Lee Van Cleef, Katy Jurado, Ian MacDonald, Robert J. Wilke, and Sheb Wooley in High Noon (1952) 57. High Noon 1952 1h 25m U 7.9 (112K) 89 Metascore A town Marshal, despite the disagreements of his newlywed bride and the townspeople around him, must face a gang of deadly killers alone at "high noon" when the gang leader, an outlaw he "sent up" years ago, arrives on the noon train. DirectorFred ZinnemannStarsGary CooperGrace KellyThomas Mitchell ***** Actors: 4.6 Stars Direction: 4.7 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 Mel Gibson in Braveheart (1995) 58. Braveheart 1995 2h 58m 15 8.3 (1.1M) 68 Metascore Scottish warrior William Wallace leads his countrymen in a rebellion to free his homeland from the tyranny of King Edward I of England. DirectorMel GibsonStarsMel GibsonSophie MarceauPatrick McGoohan Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 3 BAFTA Nominations: 5 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Kevin Costner in Dances with Wolves (1990) 59. Dances with Wolves 1990 3h 1m PG 8.0 (298K) 72 Metascore A lieutenant assigned to a remote Civil War outpost starts questioning his purpose after making contact with a neighboring Sioux settlement. DirectorKevin CostnerStarsKevin CostnerMary McDonnellGraham Greene ***** Actors: 4.5 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.6 Stars Oscars: 7 Oscar Nominations: 12 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 9 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 Jeff Goldblum, Richard Attenborough, Laura Dern, Sam Neill, Ariana Richards, BD Wong, Joseph Mazzello, Martin Ferrero, and Bob Peck in Jurassic Park (1993) 60. Jurassic Park 1993 2h 7m PG 8.2 (1.1M) 68 Metascore An industrialist invites some experts to visit his theme park of cloned dinosaurs. After a power failure, the creatures run loose, putting everyone's lives, including his grandchildren's, in danger. DirectorSteven SpielbergStarsSam NeillLaura DernJeff Goldblum Actors: 4.6 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 3 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Max von Sydow in The Exorcist (1973) 61. The Exorcist 1973 2h 2m X 8.1 (470K) 83 Metascore When a mysterious entity possesses a young girl, her mother seeks the help of two Catholic priests to save her life. DirectorWilliam FriedkinStarsEllen BurstynMax von SydowLinda Blair Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 The Pianist (2002) 62. The Pianist 2002 2h 30m 15 8.5 (948K) 85 Metascore During WWII, acclaimed Polish musician Wladyslaw faces various struggles as he loses contact with his family. As the situation worsens, he hides in the ruins of Warsaw in order to survive. DirectorRoman PolanskiStarsAdrien BrodyThomas KretschmannFrank Finlay ***** Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 5 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 2 Robert De Niro, Ray Liotta, and Joe Pesci in GoodFellas (1990) 63. GoodFellas 1990 2h 25m 18 8.7 (1.3M) 92 Metascore The story of Henry Hill and his life in the mafia, covering his relationship with his wife Karen and his mob partners Jimmy Conway and Tommy DeVito. DirectorMartin ScorseseStarsRobert De NiroRay LiottaJoe Pesci ***** Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 6 BAFTA Awards: 5 BAFTA Nominations: 7 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Robert De Niro in The Deer Hunter (1978) 64. The Deer Hunter 1978 3h 3m X 8.1 (371K) 90 Metascore An in-depth examination of the ways in which the Vietnam War impacts and disrupts the lives of several friends in a small steel mill town in Pennsylvania. DirectorMichael CiminoStarsRobert De NiroChristopher WalkenJohn Cazale Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 9 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 9 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) 65. All Quiet on the Western Front 1930 2h 32m PG 8.1 (69K) 91 Metascore A German youth eagerly enters World War I, but his enthusiasm wanes as he gets a firsthand view of the horror. DirectorLewis MilestoneStarsLew AyresLouis WolheimJohn Wray ***** Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway in Bonnie and Clyde (1967) 66. Bonnie and Clyde 1967 1h 51m X 7.7 (123K) 86 Metascore Bored waitress Bonnie Parker falls in love with an ex-con named Clyde Barrow and together they start a violent crime spree through the country, stealing cars and robbing banks. DirectorArthur PennStarsWarren BeattyFaye DunawayMichael J. Pollard Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.7 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 4 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 Gene Hackman and Marcel Bozzuffi in The French Connection (1971) 67. The French Connection 1971 1h 44m X 7.7 (140K) 94 Metascore A pair of NYPD detectives in the Narcotics Bureau stumble onto a heroin smuggling ring based in Marseilles, but stopping them and capturing their leaders proves an elusive goal. DirectorWilliam FriedkinStarsGene HackmanRoy ScheiderFernando Rey ***** Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 5 Golden Globes: 3 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Charles Chaplin in City Lights (1931) 68. City Lights 1931 1h 27m U 8.5 (204K) 99 Metascore With the aid of a wealthy erratic tippler, a dewy-eyed tramp who has fallen in love with a sightless flower girl accumulates money to be able to help her medically. DirectorCharles ChaplinStarsCharles ChaplinVirginia CherrillFlorence Lee ***** Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 0 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Clark Gable and Claudette Colbert in It Happened One Night (1934) 69. It Happened One Night 1934 1h 45m A 8.1 (115K) 87 Metascore A rogue reporter trailing a runaway heiress for a big story joins her on a bus heading from Florida to New York and they end up stuck with each other when the bus leaves them behind at one of the stops along the way. DirectorFrank CapraStarsClark GableClaudette ColbertWalter Connolly ***** Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 5 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Elizabeth Taylor, Montgomery Clift, and Shelley Winters in A Place in the Sun (1951) 70. A Place in the Sun 1951 2h 2m A 7.7 (26K) 76 Metascore A poor boy gets a job working for his rich uncle and ends up falling in love with two women. DirectorGeorge StevensStarsMontgomery CliftElizabeth TaylorShelley Winters ***** Actors: 4.6 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 6 Oscar Nominations: 9 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Dustin Hoffman and Jon Voight in Midnight Cowboy (1969) 71. Midnight Cowboy 1969 1h 53m X 7.8 (124K) 79 Metascore A naive hustler travels from Texas to New York City to seek personal fortune, finding a new friend in the process. DirectorJohn SchlesingerStarsDustin HoffmanJon VoightSylvia Miles ***** Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.7 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: 6 BAFTA Nominations: 6 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 James Stewart, Jean Arthur, Claude Rains, Edward Arnold, Beulah Bondi, Guy Kibbee, Thomas Mitchell, and Eugene Pallette in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) 72. Mr. Smith Goes to Washington 1939 2h 9m U 8.1 (124K) 73 Metascore A naive youth leader is appointed to fill a vacancy in the U.S. Senate. His idealistic plans promptly collide with corruption at home and subterfuge from his hero in Washington, but he tries to forge ahead despite attacks on his character. DirectorFrank CapraStarsJames StewartJean ArthurClaude Rains Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Tom Cruise and Dustin Hoffman in Rain Man (1988) 73. Rain Man 1988 2h 13m 15 8.0 (557K) 65 Metascore After a selfish L.A. yuppie learns his estranged father left a fortune to an autistic-savant brother in Ohio that he didn't know existed, he absconds with his brother and sets out across the country, hoping to gain a larger inheritance. DirectorBarry LevinsonStarsDustin HoffmanTom CruiseValeria Golino Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 3 Golden Globes: 2 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Woody Allen and Diane Keaton in Annie Hall (1977) 74. Annie Hall 1977 1h 33m AA 8.0 (282K) 92 Metascore Alvy Singer, a divorced Jewish comedian, reflects on his relationship with ex-lover Annie Hall, an aspiring nightclub singer, which ended abruptly just like his previous marriages. DirectorWoody AllenStarsWoody AllenDiane KeatonTony Roberts ***** Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 5 BAFTA Awards: 5 BAFTA Nominations: 6 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Fargo (1996) 75. Fargo 1996 1h 38m 18 8.1 (743K) 88 Metascore Minnesota car salesman Jerry Lundegaard's inept crime falls apart due to his and his henchmen's bungling and the persistent police work of the quite pregnant Marge Gunderson. DirectorJoel CoenEthan CoenStarsWilliam H. MacyFrances McDormandSteve Buscemi Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 6 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 James Dean, Elizabeth Taylor, and Rock Hudson in Giant (1956) 76. Giant 1956 3h 21m PG 7.6 (43K) 84 Metascore Sprawling epic covering the life of a Texas cattle rancher and his family and associates. DirectorGeorge StevensStarsElizabeth TaylorRock HudsonJames Dean ***** Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.7 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 1 Alan Ladd, Jean Arthur, Brandon De Wilde, Van Heflin, Jack Palance, and Ben Johnson in Shane (1953) 77. Shane 1953 1h 58m PG 7.6 (45K) 85 Metascore An ex-gunfighter defends homesteaders in 1889 Wyoming. DirectorGeorge StevensStarsAlan LaddJean ArthurVan Heflin Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 6 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Henry Fonda, John Carradine, Jane Darwell, Dorris Bowdon, Frank Darien, and Russell Simpson in The Grapes of Wrath (1940) 78. The Grapes of Wrath 1940 2h 9m PG 8.1 (103K) 96 Metascore An Oklahoma family, driven off their farm by the poverty and hopelessness of the Dust Bowl, joins the westward migration to California, suffering the misfortunes of the homeless in the Great Depression. DirectorJohn FordStarsHenry FondaJane DarwellJohn Carradine Actors: 4.6 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Movie Poster 79. The Green Mile 1999 3h 9m 18 8.6 (1.5M) 61 Metascore Paul Edgecomb, the head death row guard at a prison in 1930s Louisiana, meets an inmate, John Coffey, a black man who is accused of murdering two girls. His life changes drastically when he discovers that John has a special gift. DirectorFrank DarabontStarsTom HanksMichael Clarke DuncanDavid Morse Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 1 Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) 80. Close Encounters of the Third Kind 1977 2h 18m PG 7.6 (223K) 90 Metascore Roy Neary, an Indiana electric lineman, finds his quiet and ordinary daily life turned upside down after a close encounter with a UFO, spurring him to an obsessed cross-country quest for answers as a momentous event approaches. DirectorSteven SpielbergStarsRichard DreyfussFrançois TruffautTeri Garr Actors: 4.6 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 4 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 8 Nashville (1975) 81. Nashville 1975 2h 40m AA 7.6 (29K) 96 Metascore Over the course of a few hectic days, numerous interrelated people prepare for a political convention. DirectorRobert AltmanStarsKeith CarradineKaren BlackRonee Blakley ***** Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 5 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 5 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 11 Network (1976) 82. Network 1976 2h 1m AA 8.1 (175K) 83 Metascore A television network cynically exploits a deranged former anchor's ravings and revelations about mass media for its own profit, but finds that his message may be difficult to control. DirectorSidney LumetStarsFaye DunawayWilliam HoldenPeter Finch Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 4 Oscar Nominations: 10 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 9 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 5 Dustin Hoffman and Anne Bancroft in The Graduate (1967) 83. The Graduate 1967 1h 46m X 8.0 (294K) 83 Metascore A disillusioned college graduate finds himself torn between his older lover and her daughter. DirectorMike NicholsStarsDustin HoffmanAnne BancroftKatharine Ross Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: 5 BAFTA Nominations: 7 Golden Globes: 5 Golden Globe Nominations: 7 Ron Howard, Richard Dreyfuss, Charles Martin Smith, Candy Clark, Paul Le Mat, Mackenzie Phillips, and Cindy Williams in American Graffiti (1973) 84. American Graffiti 1973 1h 50m PG 7.4 (101K) 97 Metascore A group of teenagers in California's central valley spend one final night after their 1962 high school graduation cruising the strip with their buddies before they pursue their varying goals. DirectorGeorge LucasStarsRichard DreyfussRon HowardPaul Le Mat ***** Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 5 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 2 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Uma Thurman in Pulp Fiction (1994) 85. Pulp Fiction 1994 2h 34m 18 8.9 (2.3M) 95 Metascore The lives of two mob hitmen, a boxer, a gangster and his wife, and a pair of diner bandits intertwine in four tales of violence and redemption. DirectorQuentin TarantinoStarsJohn TravoltaUma ThurmanSamuel L. Jackson Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 8 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 Shirley MacLaine and Debra Winger in Terms of Endearment (1983) 86. Terms of Endearment 1983 2h 12m 15 7.4 (67K) 79 Metascore Follows hard-to-please Aurora looking for love and her daughter's family problems. DirectorJames L. BrooksStarsShirley MacLaineDebra WingerJack Nicholson ***** Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 5 Oscar Nominations: 11 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 4 Golden Globe Nominations: 6 Robin Williams and Matt Damon in Good Will Hunting (1997) 87. Good Will Hunting 1997 2h 6m 15 8.3 (1.1M) 71 Metascore Will Hunting, a janitor at MIT, has a gift for mathematics, but needs help from a psychologist to find direction in his life. DirectorGus Van SantStarsRobin WilliamsMatt DamonBen Affleck Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 5 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 9 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 1 Golden Globe Nominations: 4 Humphrey Bogart and Katharine Hepburn in The African Queen (1951) 88. The African Queen 1951 1h 45m U 7.7 (86K) 91 Metascore In WWI East Africa, a gin-swilling Canadian riverboat captain is persuaded by a strait-laced English missionary to undertake a trip up a treacherous river and use his boat to attack a German gunship. DirectorJohn HustonStarsHumphrey BogartKatharine HepburnRobert Morley Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 3 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Stagecoach (1939) 89. Stagecoach 1939 1h 36m U 7.8 (56K) 93 Metascore A group of people traveling on a stagecoach find their journey complicated by the threat of Geronimo and learn something about each other in the process. DirectorJohn FordStarsJohn WayneClaire TrevorAndy Devine Actors: 4.6 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.7 Stars Oscars: 2 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Clark Gable and Mamo Clark in Mutiny on the Bounty (1935) 90. Mutiny on the Bounty 1935 2h 12m PG 7.6 (25K) 87 Metascore First mate Fletcher Christian leads a revolt against his sadistic commander, Captain Bligh, in this classic seafaring adventure, based on the real-life 1789 mutiny. DirectorFrank LloydStarsCharles LaughtonClark GableFranchot Tone Actors: 4.9 Stars Direction: 4.7 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Charles Chaplin and Paulette Goddard in The Great Dictator (1940) 91. The Great Dictator 1940 2h 5m PG 8.4 (246K) Dictator Adenoid Hynkel tries to expand his empire while a poor Jewish barber tries to avoid persecution from Hynkel's regime. DirectorCharles ChaplinStarsCharles ChaplinPaulette GoddardJack Oakie Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 5 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Edward G. Robinson, Barbara Stanwyck, and Fred MacMurray in Double Indemnity (1944) 92. Double Indemnity 1944 1h 47m A 8.3 (172K) 95 Metascore An insurance representative is seduced by a dissatisfied housewife into a scheme of insurance fraud and murder that arouses the suspicion of his colleague, a claims investigator. DirectorBilly WilderStarsFred MacMurrayBarbara StanwyckEdward G. Robinson Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.8 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 7 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Humphrey Bogart and Mary Astor in The Maltese Falcon (1941) 93. The Maltese Falcon 1941 1h 40m PG 7.9 (170K) 97 Metascore San Francisco private detective Sam Spade takes on a case that involves him with three eccentric criminals, a gorgeous liar and their quest for a priceless statuette, with the stakes rising after his partner is murdered. DirectorJohn HustonStarsHumphrey BogartMary AstorGladys George Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.7 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 3 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Wuthering Heights (1939) 94. Wuthering Heights 1939 1h 44m PG 7.5 (20K) A servant in the house of Wuthering Heights tells a traveler the unfortunate tale of lovers Cathy and Heathcliff. DirectorWilliam WylerStarsMerle OberonLaurence OlivierDavid Niven ***** Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: N/A BAFTA Nominations: N/A Golden Globes: N/A Golden Globe Nominations: N/A Robert De Niro in Taxi Driver (1976) 95. Taxi Driver 1976 1h 54m 18 8.2 (958K) 94 Metascore A mentally unstable veteran works as a nighttime taxi driver in New York City, where the perceived decadence and sleaze fuels his urge for violent action. DirectorMartin ScorseseStarsRobert De NiroJodie FosterCybill Shepherd Actors: 5 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 2 BAFTA Nominations: 6 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 2 Grace Kelly, James Stewart, Georgine Darcy, Judith Evelyn, and Harry Landers in Rear Window (1954) 96. Rear Window 1954 1h 52m PG 8.5 (538K) 100 Metascore A bored photographer recovering from a broken leg passes the time by watching his neighbors and begins to suspect one of them of murder. DirectorAlfred HitchcockStarsJames StewartGrace KellyWendell Corey Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 5 Stars Screenplay: 4.9 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 4 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 1 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Orson Welles in The Third Man (1949) 97. The Third Man 1949 1h 44m PG 8.1 (187K) 97 Metascore Pulp novelist Holly Martins travels to shadowy, postwar Vienna, only to find himself investigating the mysterious death of an old friend, Harry Lime. DirectorCarol ReedStarsOrson WellesJoseph CottenAlida Valli Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 1 Oscar Nominations: 3 BAFTA Awards: 1 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 James Dean, Natalie Wood, and Corey Allen in Rebel Without a Cause (1955) 98. Rebel Without a Cause 1955 1h 51m PG 7.6 (100K) 89 Metascore A rebellious young man with a troubled past comes to a new town, finding friends and enemies. DirectorNicholas RayStarsJames DeanNatalie WoodSal Mineo ***** Actors: 4.7 Stars Direction: 4.7 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 3 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 2 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 Cary Grant, Alfred Hitchcock, Eva Marie Saint, and Philip Ober in North by Northwest (1959) 99. North by Northwest 1959 2h 16m PG 8.3 (357K) 98 Metascore A New York City advertising executive goes on the run after being mistaken for a government agent by a group of foreign spies, and falls for a woman whose loyalties he begins to doubt. DirectorAlfred HitchcockStarsCary GrantEva Marie SaintJames Mason Actors: 4.8 Stars Direction: 4.9 Stars Screenplay: 4.8 Stars Oscars: 0 Oscar Nominations: 3 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0 James Cagney in Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942) 100. Yankee Doodle Dandy 1942 2h 6m U 7.6 (17K) 89 Metascore The life of the renowned musical composer, playwright, actor, dancer, and singer George M. Cohan. DirectorMichael CurtizStarsJames CagneyJoan LeslieWalter Huston Actors: 4.6 Stars Direction: 4.7 Stars Screenplay: 4.6 Stars Oscars: 3 Oscar Nominations: 8 BAFTA Awards: 0 BAFTA Nominations: 0 Golden Globes: 0 Golden Globe Nominations: 0

• Condition: In Excellent Condition
• Historical Period: Roman: Provincial (100-400 AD)
• Provenance: Roman
• Cleaned/ Uncleaned: Uncleaned
• Certification Number: Glaliator
• Grade: Ungraded
• Metal: Unknown
• Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom
• Certification: Uncertified

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